Thirty Years' War. ix. Thirty Years' War Czech period of the 30 Years' War

The Czech uprising in 1618 developed into a war, which was called Thirty Years' War. It lasted from 1618 to 1648. Almost all the states of Europe participated in the Thirty Years' War, thus it was the first all-European war. Therefore, this period of time is often referred to as " Struggle for dominance in Europe».

Causes of the Thirty Years' War

At the beginning of the 17th century, relations between European states were still aggravated by dynastic, trade, economic and religious conflicts.

In 1630, the army of Gustavus Adolphus landed in Germany. In a series of battles, Gustavus Adolphus defeated in parts the troops of the imperials and the Catholic League, which outnumbered his army. Military operations were transferred to the territory of the Catholic camp - to the south of Germany. The emperor urgently returned Wallenstein to command of the army, but this could not stop the Swedes. Even after the death of Gustavus Adolphus in one of the battles, they continued to successfully crush the troops opposing them.

The end of the Thirty Years' War: the Franco-Swedish period (1635-1648)

The position of the Habsburgs became critical after Catholic France entered the war on the side of the Protestant states in 1635. From this moment on, the Thirty Years' War finally loses its religious character. The French armies, successfully fighting against the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, defended the interests of the French monarchy and the commercial and industrial circles associated with it. Germany turned into a huge battlefield where the one who had the power was right. All armies adopted the principle of "war feeds war". Mercenary squads turned into hordes of rapists and marauders(robbers). In the end, after everything that was possible was taken from the disadvantaged people, and there was nothing to plunder, the war came to an end.

Questions about this item:

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  At the turn of the 2nd centuries of the 16th and 17th centuries, this situation was unstable and carried the prerequisites for another all-European conflict. From 1494 to 1559 Europe experienced a conflict called the Italian Wars. In the era of modern times, conflicts are becoming more and more large-scale and acquire a pan-European character. What is the complexity of the international situation?

  France, after the religious wars ended and Henri (Henry) 4 of Bourbon reigned, began to prepare to expand its territory, strengthen its borders and establish claims to hegemony in Europe. Those. the place of hegemon, which was occupied by Spain, the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburgs in the middle of the 16th century, did not remain vacant for a long time. In order for his hegemonic aspirations to have some grounds, Henry 4 resumes, or rather confirms, the agreement concluded in 1535-36 with Ottoman Turkey, aimed at inciting the Turks against the Venetian Republic and the Austrian Habsburgs.

  In the 16th century, the French tried to solve the problem of the Habsburgs and eliminate, at least for a while, the pliers of the Habsburgs, Spanish and Austrian, who squeezed France from the east and west.

  Now the French are preparing to start wars to expand their territory and finally overthrow the Habsburgs. This preparation was completed in 1610 in a completely unexpected event. The religious fanatic Revolier stabbed Henry 4 with a dagger. This attempt was caused not only by the internal religious and political events of French society, but also by the intrigues of the Austrian Habsburgs.

  Therefore, the preparation of France for an active offensive foreign policy and territorial expansion was at least thwarted for 10 years, because an interpower was established in France, the young Louis 13, his mother regent. In fact, another Fronde has been hit - disagreements between the nobility, Protestant and Catholic. In general, this nobility tried to weaken the power of royal power.

  Therefore, from 1610 to 1620, France sharply weakens its position and activity in the European arena.

  Louis then becomes an adult. Most recently, they showed a film about how he regained power. He kills his mother's favorite and regains power. And after Cardinal Richelieu came to power in 1624, who ruled the country together with the king, until 1642, France was gaining momentum to strengthen the absolute monarchy and strengthen state power.

  This policy met with support from the third estate, from the growing population of cities, crafts, trade, the bourgeoisie and the untitled nobility. Richelieu managed to pacify the titled nobility at least for a while.

  In foreign policy, expansionist sentiments are again intensifying, and France resumes preparations for the struggle for the establishment of French hegemony, at least in the continental part of Europe.

  The opponents of the French are the Spaniards, Austria, to some extent England. But here qualitative changes begin in French politics, because both Henry 4 and Cardinal Richelieu preached an active foreign policy.

  Henry 4 believed that there are territories where they speak French, there are territories where they speak Spanish, German, then Henry 4 believed that French-speaking territories should be part of his kingdom. Those lands where German dialects are spoken should go to the Holy Roman Empire, and Spanish - to the Spanish kingdom.

  Under Richelieu, this moderate expansionism is replaced by an immoderate one. Richelieu believed that the purpose of my being in power was to revive Gaul and return to the Gauls the borders intended for them by nature itself.

  Remember the period of antiquity. Gaul is a rather huge amorphous region, and the return of the boundaries intended for it meant that the French, at least in the east, should go to the Rhine and include the left bank of the Rhine together with the Netherlands in the new Gaul, and go to the Pyrenees in order to expand the territory in the west and south countries.

  Thus, put France in the place of Gaul and, according to Richelieu's idea, form a new Gaul. This unbridled expansion was naturally presented in a shell, camouflaged in beautiful expressions: safe borders, natural frontiers, restoration of historical justice, and so on.

  Beneath these sentiments lay certain economic, social, and demographic problems in France. The fact is that France was the most populated country. This is at least 15 million people. And of course, living space is required.

  Since the 16th century, as a result of the VGO and other changes, France has entered a phase of rapid economic growth, and not just an economy, but the creation of a market economy, which requires and is the basis of expansion. On the one hand, a powerful economy allows for an active foreign policy and offensive policy, and on the other hand, this economy requires new markets. The construction of the French colonial empire begins in a new light, in India, etc.

  Early 17th century France and the French are faced with the problem of a new rise of the Habsburgs. We know that in the 16th century the Habsburgs were weakened. Since the beginning of the 16th century, the memory of these defeats and the influence of the factors that led to the weakening of the Habsburgs have been weakening to some extent. These factors are 5:

  1) The desire to create a universalist, unified monarchy in Europe. This aspiration suffers a crushing defeat in 1556. Charles 1 (Charles 5) goes to the monastery, his possessions are divided into the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs and the Spanish branch. Those. this state is falling apart. This is the first factor that led to the weakening of the Habsburgs in the middle-second half of the 16th century.

  2) The fight against the rebellious Netherlands, the Dutch revolution. Dates are different. From the iconoclastic uprising to 1609, the conclusion of a 12-year truce. Or the end of the Anglo-Dutch wars by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. In fact, the revolution lasted about 80 years. 3 generations of Dutch revolutionaries fought for the ideals of the revolution. This factor weakened the power of the Habsburgs.

  3) The struggle against the dominance of the Habsburgs within the Holy Roman Empire. Moreover, not only Protestant rulers fought, such as the Duke of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, but also Catholic rulers such as the Duke of Bavaria, who believed that a weak emperor was better than a strong one.

  4) Anglo-Spanish rivalry on the seas. The defeat of the Great Armada, the largest fleet in the history of the 16th century in 1588. These wars at sea, respectively, in the 17th century, after the change of dynasty in England, the arrival of the Stuarts, are weakening, because the Stuarts are trying on the one hand to compete with Spain, and on the other hand to establish normal relations, to conclude a dynastic alliance in order to descend not only by war, but and dynastic diplomatic relations.

  5) The rivalry between the two branches of the Habsburgs, Austrian and Spanish, for supremacy in the House of Habsburg on the one hand, and secondly for establishing their influence both in southern Germany and in the Italian lands, which mostly went to the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs.

  These 5 factors that divided the Habsburgs and weakened in the 16th century, these factors cease to operate in the 17th century, or weaken.

  And there is a desire to connect these 2 branches through a dynastic marriage and unite the broken state again into a single monarchy.

  As you understand, these death plans are similar for many European countries. For the same France, the restoration of the power and unity of the Habsburgs means that the nightmare of the 16th century is reborn, these Habsburg pincers, from the east and from the west, who threatened to crush France, and France felt like between a rock and a hard place.

  The strengthening of the Habsburgs is facilitated by a factor that is often underestimated in our literature: this is the weakening of the Ottoman threat by the end of the 16th century.

  1573 - 4th Venetian-Turkish war.

  1609 - the 6th Austro-Turkish war ends and also land wars for 10 years, the threat to Austria and Hungary weakens. This means that the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs have freed up a resource and can direct it to other areas of their foreign policy, i.e. send their forces against France and other European countries.

  This is how the international situation changes in the early-first half of the 17th century.

  The threat of the strengthening of the Habsburgs, and they are orthodox Catholics, no less than the Pope, and the threat of a revival of Catholic reaction, i.e. counter-reformation, the onset of the corresponding inquisition and the revision of the results of the Reformation in religious, social, political, property terms - it was a very serious threat at the beginning of the 17th century. And this threat was directed against a number of states.

  First of all, for the German Protestant lands and cities of the Hansa, the victory and strengthening of the Habsburgs was like death. Why? Because then it was necessary to return to the Catholic Church everything that they had taken away from it during the years of the Reformation. But it would not be limited to this, but there would be an inquisition, bonfires, prisons, gallows, etc.

  The same would have been true for the insurgent Netherlands, who, up to 1609, were conducting military operations against the Spaniards. Then both of them fizzled out, and in 1609 they concluded a 12-year truce or the Peace of Antwerp until 1621.

  Even Protestant Denmark could not agree with the strengthening of the Habsburgs. Because the Danes considered themselves the heirs of the weakened Hansa, they believed that Denmark should regain control over the trade routes in the North and Baltic Seas. Accordingly, the increase in the territory of the Danish kingdom at the expense of the North German lands was always welcomed by the Danes.

  Sweden - Sweden was ruled by a talented monarch, a reformer, Gustav 2 August. He constantly waged wars with his neighbors Russia, Poland. Its goal is to establish Sweden's dominance in the Baltic region, to take control of the coast, all major ports and estuaries of navigable rivers in the Baltic in order to control profitable trade in the North Sea, to turn the Baltic into an inland Swedish lake. To saddle (control) trade meant to impose trade with its duties, taxes, so that Sweden could live comfortably through the exploitation of this trade, increase its economic, political and military power. Therefore, for Sweden, the strengthening of the Habsburgs was dangerous and unprofitable.

  England. The position of Protestant England was more complex, not so definite. On the one hand, for England, as a Protestant country, the threat of the restoration of Catholicism, the counter-reformation was unacceptable. In addition, England continued to be a potentially dangerous rival of the Catholic countries ... Therefore, the strengthening of the Habsburgs in the Mediterranean or the Atlantic was not included in the plans of the British. Therefore, the British tried to harm them wherever they could, and supported all the anti-Habsburg forces.

  Riots in the Netherlands, unrest in the Holy Roman Empire, England gladly supported.

  On the other hand, another factor acted on the British. The Dutch and French competed with the English crown in shipping. Therefore, there was no particular reason for the British to get involved in this conflict either. And they sought to pursue such a policy that the opposing pro-Habsburg forces and the Angty-Habsburg forces, without the active participation of England in hostilities, would exhaust each other, and the British would benefit from this. Therefore, England sometimes took an indecisive position and sought to minimize its participation in the European struggle during the 30 Years' War.

  The main epicenter of the arena of the future all-European war, which we know as the 30-year war, 1618-1648, was Germany, the Holy Roman Empire. This is the main theater of war for the opposing sides. What are these sides?

  In the early 1610s, 2 blocks were formed.

  1 block Habsburg, which included the Catholic princes of Germany, Spain and Austria. Accordingly, this coalition was actively supported by the throne of St. Peter, this is the Pope, who at some points also participated in this war, and the Commonwealth, which waged its wars, but dreamed of reuniting through the German lands ..., to get direct access to the Austrian lands, to receive the support of European catholic monarchs.

  Anti-Habsburg bloc. If the Catholic forces supported the Habsburgs, respectively, the Protestants were opponents of both the Catholic princes and the Habsburgs, Spanish and Austrian. Protestant princes of the Holy Roman Empire, primarily Germany, Sweden, Denmark and Catholic France. The anti-Hasburg bloc was also strongly supported by Russia, to a large extent by England (before the revolution), and Holland. Holland did not formally enter into any agreements on military alliances, but from 1609 and from 1621 there were wars between the Dutch and the Spaniards until 1648. And these wars became, as it were, an integral part of this 30-year war.

  Germany became the main theater of operations, the focus of the pan-European crisis. Why? First of all, the geographical factor. The country is terribly fragmented: 300 medium, large principalities, 1.5 thousand small possessions, imperial cities. Everyone is fighting with each other like a cat and a dog. Accordingly, it is a pleasure for hired troops to walk, rob, and fight in this territory.

  Secondly, the Holy Roman Empire is the fiefdom of the Austrian Habsburgs, who tried to establish the triumph of the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church and consolidate their power on this territory.

  Germany experienced during the 16th and early 17th centuries a period of economic, social, and political decline. The country was fragmented according to the religious peace of 1555. The Augsturg religious world played a huge role in weakening the German lands and expanding the rivalry of the German princes.

  In addition, the unsuccessful attempt of the early bourgeois revolution led to the weakening of the forces that advocated the renewal of German society. This means the creation of a market economy, the development of market bourgeois-capitalist relations and the strengthening of the forces that were for the conservation of these relations, the preservation of the old order: feudalism, Catholicism.

  The last factor is the WGO and the changes in the trade and economy of Europe to which they led, the displacement of the main trade routes. This led to the fact that the German states, which flourished in the 14th century and the beginning of the 16th century, lost their incentive to develop. Accordingly, the handicraft and manufacturing economy fell into decay, the urban economy fell into decay. And this means a reduction in the market for agricultural. products and the decline of the overall economy of the country. And in conditions of decline, tendencies towards conservatism triumph; not the development of agriculture along the market path, but the commutation of agriculture, a return to the old feudal rails.

  The political and religious struggle within the Holy Roman Empire intensified by the beginning of the 17th century under Emperor Rudolf 2 of Habsburg (1576-1612). Under him, the prerequisites for a future pan-European conflict were outlined. First of all, the Catholic Church and the Jesuits under Rudolf 2 went on the offensive from the beginning of the 17th century in order to change the fragile balance of religious and political forces established by the Augsburg Religious Peace of 1555.

  This threat forces the Protestant rulers to rally. And by 1608, create a Protestant or Evangelical union headed by the ruler (elector) of the Palatinate, Frederick 5 of the Palatinate.

  In response to this, in 1609, the Catholic princes created the Catholic League, headed by the Duke of Bavaria, Elector Maximilian (Max) of Bavaria.

  These 2 leagues start their own troops, their own treasury, their own coin, conduct completely independent external relations. The formation of both religious and political groups in Germany by 1608-1609 means that the struggle on the territory of the German lands is entering a decisive phase. But Elector Frederick of the Palatinate is guided by France in foreign policy, by Henry 4 of Bourbon, although he is a Catholic. With his support, he is trying to resist the pressure of Rudolf 2 of Habsburg, the pressure of the Spaniards and Austrians. At the same time, he is married to the daughter of James 1 Stuart, i.e. is his son-in-law, and is oriented to some extent to England.

  Max of Bavaria relies on the Spaniards and the Austrian Habsburgs.

  However, the conflict by 1610 nevertheless does not receive its development. The reasons:

  The fact is that the main participants in the future conflict are not yet ready for war.

  The Spaniards until 1609 are busy suppressing the revolution in the Netherlands. They are exhausted by this war and are not able to immediately enter into a new war. Although Philip 3 is in contact with the Austrian Habsburgs, supports Bavaria, the Catholic League, but cannot start a war.

  1610 Armagnac kills Henri (Henry) 4 of Bourbon and therefore France leaves active world politics for decades, as civil strife and the weakening of royal power take place there.

  England, which is in principle interested in a pan-European conflict that should destroy and weaken its competitors, also in the 1610s, James 1 Stuart pursues such a policy: on the one hand, he supports the anti-Habsburg Protestant forces in Europe, and on the other hand, he tries to agree on dynastic marriage with the Spanish Habsburgs. Therefore, he is also not entirely interested in this conflict.

  Sweden, Russia are also busy with their own affairs in Poland and the Baltics. The Poles undertook an unsuccessful campaign against Moscow in 1617-18 (Smoot, False Dmitry).

  Those. until 1618, all the countries of Europe are busy with their own affairs.

  The first period of this 30-year war was called the Bohemian-Pfalian. 1618-1624. The main events took place on the territory of the Palatinate and the Czech Republic. Both sides, both the Habsburg and anti-Habsburg supporters, showed themselves to be quite aggressive forces that sought to weaken each other, to wrest a fatter piece from each other.

  The fact is that the Czech Republic was included in the Habsburg Empire in 1526. This is the active phase of the peasant war, the Reformation. Ferdinand of Habsburg, who became the Czech king, promised the Czechs, when the Czech Republic was included in the Habsburg Austrian Empire, the preservation of religious freedoms, the rejection of persecution of Protestants, and the preservation of liberty and self-government of both Czech cities and the Czech kingdom as a whole.

  But promises are made by politicians in order not to fulfill them later, but to think about how to get around them. Subsequent development led to the fact that all these liberties were crushed and reduced. Therefore, claims from the growing cities of the Czech population grew. And the Czech Republic, the Czech cities were the most prosperous region of the Habsburg Austrian state.

  By the beginning of the 17th century, the ruler of the Palatinate, Frederick 5, begins to flirt with the Czechs, begins to incite them to riots and promises to create an anti-Habsburg alliance consisting of the Palatinate, the Czech Republic, Holland, the Swiss cantons, the Venetian Republic, etc. Those. create an anti-Habsburg coalition that will help the Czechs free themselves from the influence of the power of the Catholic Habsburgs.

  Under these conditions, Rudolph in 1611 was forced to confirm all existing liberties and concessions to the Czechs. And what's more, he received the Letter of Majesty. The essence of this charter was that since the Czechs had accumulated many claims against Austrian officials who did not fulfill their obligations, violated the rights of Czechs, the liberties of cities, then we establish a government consisting of 10 deputies, called lieutenants, who govern on behalf of the Austrian monarch Czech Republic. But the Czechs, for their part, elect their proxies - controllers, who must monitor both the observance of the civil rights of the Czechs and religious freedoms and the prevention of persecution of the Protestant Czech population. It looks like a dual power. On the one hand, the official authorities, on the other hand, the Czech controllers.

  Dual power does not exist in any country for a long time, because some kind of scale begins to pull. These 10 lieutenants, deputies of the Austrian monarch, gradually begin to bribe controllers, to force cooperation. And the four most incorruptible were declared opposition and tried to expel.

  As a result, on May 5, 1618, an uprising broke out in Prague, the territory, the Prague Castle, was seized, and two of the most irreconcilable lieutenants were thrown out of the windows. This uprising thus begins the era of the 30 Years' War.

  The Czechs are quickly creating their own government, which is building up its own armed forces, its own treasury. They begin to call for rebellion other Slavic lands, these are Moravia, upper and lower Lusatia, and Silesia in order to form their own association within the Austrian Empire, which would then escape from the orbit of the Habsburgs' attraction and create an independent state.

  This is unacceptable, although the Czechs are counting on the help of the German princes, the same Palatinate. This leads to the final split in Europe. The Austrian Habsburgs quickly find common ground, agreements with the Spaniards, and hire Spanish troops. The Bavarian ruler Max sends his troops under the command of the talented commander Baron Tilly.

  Habsburg is deprived of the Czech throne, and Frederick 5 of the Palatinate is proclaimed Czech king. This leads to the beginning of serious hostilities on the territory of the Czech Republic, Moravia. Catholic troops, Spanish troops, Austrian Habsburg troops invade, and the 30 Years' War begins.

  The preponderance of forces is on the side of the Habsburg coalition. But in the end, the German Protestant princes enter into an agreement with the Catholic princes of Germany, according to which the status quo is maintained in the German lands, and the Catholic troops get a free hand to act in the Slavic lands (the Germans do not feel sorry for the Slavs).

  As a result, on November 8, 1620, the Czech army was defeated in the battle of Belaya Gora. The failed Czech king, ruler of the Palatinate, flees to Brandenburg. By 1624, Catholic troops, these are Spanish mercenaries, the troops of the Catholic League under the leadership of Max of Bavaria and the troops of Emperor Wallenstein themselves capture all the rebellious Slavic lands.

  As a result, a regime of terror is established on the territory of the Czech Republic and Moravia. All opponents of the Habsburgs are exterminated. Their property is being seized. Protestant worship and churches are prohibited. A fully Catholic reaction is established.

  From that moment to this day, the Czech Republic is a Catholic country.

  The Spaniards invade the Palatinate and also capture and ravage it.

  In 1625-29, the second stage of the 30-year war begins. It is called the Danish period.

  The essence of this period is that the position of the Protestant camp in the German lands becomes simply desperately difficult. All of central Germany is occupied, northern Germany is next.

  All this leads to the fact that Denmark, which itself strives for territorial expansion in northern Germany, and is trying to take both the North Sea and the Baltic under its control, cannot come to terms with the triumph of the Catholic Spaniards and the Austrian Habsburgs. She receives subsidies from England and France. France is not yet ready for war. And Denmark enters the war. Therefore, the second period is called the Danish period.

  The Austrian army under Wallenstein is largely mercenary, operating thanks to the Wallenstein system. The essence of this system was that the 30-year war is basically, with the exception of the Swedish armies, these are mercenary troops. If you have money, then you have hired troops. If there is no money...

  Denmark enters the war. On the one hand, it is supported by Wallenstein, on the other hand, Baron Tilly, who commands the troops of the Catholic League. The Austrians are creating a powerful mercenary army that operates according to the Wallenstein system. The essence of this system was that the troops had to be paid, as a rule, there was not enough money in the treasury. Wallenstein's system lies in the fact that the troops where they lodge, at the expense of this territory, live. Either they rob the local population, or they feed in a civilized way through withdrawals, indemnities, taxes. This army of Wallenstein, like locusts, passes through all of southern and central Germany, enters northern, defeats the Danish troops. As a result, by the spring of 1629, both the Protestant princes and Denmark are on the verge of final defeat.

  On March 6, 1629, all this forces the Protestant princes and Denmark to conclude a difficult peace for them. According to this peace, Denmark refuses to participate in any German and withdraws its troops outside the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire. All the ambitions of the Danes are unfulfilled. Wallenstein is given as a gift the Duchy of Mecklenburg in northern Germany, which is a springboard for further Austrian aggression both against Denmark and against the north German territories.

  On March 6, 1629, the Protestant princes were forced to agree to the introduction of a restorative edict. Restitution means restoration, return of some position. The essence of this edict of March 6, 1629 is that all the rights of the Catholic Church, its lands, its property, which it lost as a result of the Reformation, are returned back to the old owners, monasteries, the Catholic Church. Plus, all the bishops, archbishops of the Catholic Church are restoring their not only ecclesiastical, but also secular power within the Holy Roman Empire.

  This biggest success of the Habsburg coalition by the spring of 1629 to some extent plays a cruel joke on these forces, because the rulers always look at their commanders as possible competitors. So the Habsburgs looked at this Wallenstein, one of the greatest generals, with suspicion. Therefore, in 1630 he was retired.

  In 1630, the next, Swedish stage of this war begins. 1630-1635 years.

  The fact is that the Treaty of Lübeck and the Edict of Restoration opened up the possibility of implementing the political plans of the Habsburgs to create a universalist monarchy in Europe and establish the political hegemony of the Habsburgs in Europe. Therefore, the states that opposed the Habsburgs faced a real threat that had to be confronted.

  In 1628, Richelieu takes La Rochelle, turns the head of the Huguenots (Protestants) in France. But France does not yet want to enter the war. Therefore, Richelieu decided to use as a weapon of war the young energetic monarch King Gustavus Adolf - indeed one of the most talented monarchs of the 17th century, a reformer and a major military commander. France provides financial assistance. With this money, Gustav Adolf is reforming his army. Its essence is as follows: before Gustavus Adolf, Catholic troops fought in huge regiments. Before Gustavus Adolphus, there were mercenary troops who fought when they were paid. Therefore, the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus introduces a regular army, based on national armies. Not mercenaries, but a recruiting kit. They have a higher degree of consciousness.

  Further, he is reforming the Swedish army, which consists in the introduction of linear progressive tactics. In this army, the main emphasis is on firearms. Swedish troops are being equipped with more powerful artillery, including field artillery for the first time. Shelves line up...

  As a result, in 1630, Swedish troops landed in northern Germany, quickly captured it, entered Central Germany, Saxony. They conclude allied relations with the Saxon duke, and inflict 2 most powerful defeats on the troops of the Habsburg coalition.

  September 7, 1631 Battle of Breitenfeld. The army commanded by Baron Tilly is defeated.

  However, the battle of Lutzen turned out to be fatal for Gustav 2 Adolf. He died. Historians debate how this happened. The Austrians fled, the Swedes began to pursue them. The king, at the head of a small detachment, rode in the hope of capturing one of the prominent military leaders. Either he ran into a more powerful detachment, or he was slaughtered by his own military, who were bribed.

  After this tragic victory, the affairs of the Swedes are upset, discipline is falling. The Swedish army was already defeated in September 1634 in the battle of Nervingen, and the Swedes were losing their positions in Germany. They retreat to the North Sea and the Polish border.

  In 1635 the Swedish stage ends.

  The last stage from 1635 to 1648 was called the Franco-Swedish.

  France concludes the Treaty of Saint-Germain with Sweden, which is gradually joined by other states: Holland, Mantua, Savoy, Venice. The preponderance of the forces of the anti-Habsburg coalition is gradually formed, which begins to affect the course of hostilities.

  On May 19, 1643, in the battle of Rokur, Prince Condé actually destroys, leads the army of the Habsburgs and German princes to flight.

  And the Swedes on November 2, 1645, in the battle of Jankov, also defeat the Austrian army.

  As a result, in 1846, the Swedish and French armies unite and hostilities are transferred to the territory of the Czech Republic and Austria. In fact, the winners of the Swedes and the French can divide the territory of the Holy Roman Empire among themselves. They threaten to storm Vienna. All this forces the Austrians and the German Catholic princes to enter into peace negotiations in order to end the war.

  France is also interested in ending the war. All this leads to the fact that at the negotiations in the two cities of Osnabrück and Münster on October 24, 1648, 2 peace treaties are concluded, which we know under the general name as the Westphalian Peace Treaty.

  Sweden concludes a treaty in Osnabrück between Sweden, Holy Roman Emperor, i.e. Austria, and Protestant and Catholic princes. And the treaty in Munster is between France and Holland and their opponents. The Spaniards do not sign the treaty in Munster, they continue this war for many more years.

  The main significance of the Treaty of Westphalia is that:

  Sweden receives the northern coast of Germany, control over all major ports and estuaries of navigable rivers. As a result of the 30-year war, Sweden began to dominate the Baltic and became part of the Holy Roman Empire.

  France receives territorial increments: upper and lower Alsace, recognition of its rights to the previously captured bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, which were captured back in 1552. This is a powerful springboard for further advancement to the east.

  Under the Treaty of Münster, Spain and the whole world in 1648 finally de facto and de jure recognize the independence of the Netherlands.

  The Peace of Westphalia ends the 10th anniversary of the Spanish-Dutch Wars started in 1572 to 1648.

  Holland also receives some territorial increments.

  Their allies, Brandenburg, also receive territorial increments and compensations in Germany.

  The Franco-Spanish War continues until 1659, i.e. 11 more years, and ends with the signing of the Peace of the Pyrenees, according to which France expands its southern border to the Pyrenees, and in the east receives important counties: part of Flanders, and Artois.

  The Peace of Westphalia and the 30 Years' War are of great importance for the countries of Europe. First of all, during the 30 years of the war, the population of Germany decreased from 16 to 10 million people. This is a demographic disaster. This population was restored only by the middle of the 18th century. In some territories, such as Bavaria, Thuringia, Brandenburg, population losses amounted to 50%. In other principalities, 60-70% of the population was destroyed or died as a result of famine and epidemics.

  1618. The Margraviate of Brandenburg seizes the Duchy of Prussia and becomes the Brandenburg-Prussian state, which further builds up its muscles.

  The results of the 30-year war: the demographic blow to Germany. Economic decline and ruin of cities and agriculture.

  Under these conditions, conservative tendencies to return to feudal property and strengthen feudal rather than early bourgeois exploitation of both the urban and rural peasant population triumph. Most importantly, the fragmentation of Germany remained until the middle of the 19th century. The disunity of the German nation.

  As a result of the 30-year war and the Peace of Westphalia, 2 states triumph: Sweden, which is turning into the largest power in the Baltic and subordinating the Baltic region to its influence. And France is getting stronger too. From the middle of the 18th century, it begins to claim the role of hegemon in European politics.

  2 new states appear: the Netherlands or the United Provinces and Switzerland, the Swiss cantons. These 2 states leave the Holy Roman Empire and become independent independent states.

  Russia's participation in the 30 Years' War lies in the fact that Russia did not directly participate in the 30-year war, although the wars that were fought between Poland and Russia took away strength from the Catholic bloc.

  Besides. Russia indirectly participated in this war, helping countries that were part of the anti-Habsburg coalition. Until 1625, Russia sold strategic goods to them at low prices: bread and saltpeter. Until 1625, the main flow of bread and saltpeter went to England and Holland. From 1625 to 1629, Denmark was supported in the same way. Since 1630 - Sweden.
  

  Dates:

  30 year war. 1618-1648

  Stage 1. Czech-Palatinate. 1618-1624.

  Stage 2. Danish. 1625-1629. Ended with the Peace of Lübeck, Restorative Edict March 6, 1629. Defeat of Denmark, Protestant princes.

  Stage 3. Swedish. 1630-1635. 2 battles: at Breitenfeld on September 7, 1631. The defeat of the troops of the Catholic League under the command of Baron Tilly. Battle of Lützen (Saxony, near Leipzig) November 16, 1632. The death of Gustav 2 Adolf.

  Stage 4. French-Swedish. 1635-1648. The battle of Rokua, the troops of the Prince of Condé won on May 19, 1643. The victory of the Swedes in the battle of Jankov on November 2, 1645.

  The French frontier was advancing towards the Pyrenees. This treaty contained the seeds of future wars that Louis 14 waged.

  

  Reference table for thirty years war contains the main periods, events, dates, battles, participating countries and the results of this war. The table will be useful to schoolchildren and students in preparing for tests, exams and the exam in history.

  Bohemian period of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1625)

  	Events of the Thirty Years' War	Results of the Thirty Years' War
  	The oppositional nobles, led by Count Thurn, were thrown out of the windows of the Czech Chancellery into the ditch of the royal governors (“Prague Defenestration”).	Beginning of the Thirty Years' War.
  	The Czech directory formed an army led by Count Thurn, the Evangelical Union sent 2 thousand soldiers under the command of Mansfeld.
  	The siege and capture of the city of Pilsen by the Protestant army of Count Mansfeld.
  	The Protestant army of Count Thurn approached Vienna, but met with stubborn resistance.	The 15,000-strong imperial army, led by Count Buqua and Dampier, entered the Czech Republic.
  	Battle of Sablat.	Near České Budějovice, the imperials of Count Buqua defeated the Protestants of Mansfeld, and Count Thurn lifted the siege of Vienna.
  	Battle of Vesternica.	Czech victory over Dampier's imperials.
  	The Transylvanian prince Gabor Bethlen moved against Vienna, but was stopped by the Hungarian magnate Druget Gomonai.	On the territory of the Czech Republic, protracted battles were fought with varying success.
  October 1619	Emperor Ferdinand II concluded an agreement with the head of the Catholic League, Maximilian of Bavaria.	For this, the Elector of Saxony was promised Silesia and Lusatia, and the Duke of Bavaria was promised the possessions of the Elector of the Palatinate and his electoral rank. In 1620, Spain sent a 25,000-strong army under the command of Ambrosio Spinola to help the emperor.
  	Emperor Ferdinand II concluded an agreement with the Elector of Saxony Johann-Georg.
  	Battle on White Mountain.	The Protestant army of Frederick V suffers a crushing defeat from the imperial troops and the army of the Catholic League under the command of Field Marshal Count Tilly near Prague.
  	The collapse of the Evangelical Union and the loss of all possessions and title by Frederick V.	Bavaria received the Upper Palatinate, Spain - the Lower. Margrave George-Friedrich of Baden-Durlach remained an ally of Frederick V.
  	The Transylvanian prince Gabor Bethlen signed peace at Nikolsburg with the emperor, gaining territories in eastern Hungary.
  	Mansfeld defeated the imperial army of Count Tilly at the battle of Wiesloch (Wishloch) and joined with the Margrave of Baden.	Tilly was forced to retreat, having lost 3,000 men killed and wounded, as well as all his guns, and headed to join Cordoba.
  	The troops of the German Protestants, led by Margrave George-Friedrich, are defeated in the battles of Wimpfen by the Tilly imperials and the Spanish troops that came from the Netherlands, led by Gonzales de Cordoba.
  	The victory of the 33,000th imperial army of Tilly in the battle of Hoechst over the 20,000th army of Christian of Brunswick.
  	At the Battle of Fleurus, Tilly defeated Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick and drove them into Holland.
  	Battle of Stadtlon.	Imperial forces under Count Tilly thwarted Christian of Brunswick's invasion of northern Germany by defeating his 15,000-strong Protestant army.
  	Frederick V concluded a peace treaty with Emperor Ferdinand II.	The first period of the war ended with a convincing victory for the Habsburgs, but this led to a closer unity of the anti-Habsburg coalition.
  	France and Holland signed the Treaty of Compiègne, later joined by England, Sweden and Denmark, Savoy and Venice.

  Danish period of the Thirty Years' War (1625-1629)

  	Events of the Thirty Years' War	Results of the Thirty Years' War
  	Christian IV, King of Denmark, came to the aid of the Protestants with an army of 20,000.	Denmark enters the war on the side of the Protestants.
  	The Catholic army under the command of the Czech Catholic Count Albrecht von Wallenstein defeats the Protestants of Mansfeld at Dessau.
  	Count Tilly's imperial troops defeated the Danes at the Battle of Lütter an der Barenberg.
  	The troops of Count Wallenstein occupy Mecklenburg, Pomerania and the mainland possessions of Denmark: Holstein, Schleswig, Jutland.
  	The siege of the port of Stralsund in Pomerania by Wallenstein's imperial troops.	The Catholic armies of Count Tilly and Count Wallenstein conquer much of Protestant Germany.
  	Restitution Edict.	Return to the Catholic Churches of the lands taken by the Protestants after 1555.
  	Treaty of Lübeck between Emperor Ferdinand II and Danish King Christian IV.	Danish possessions returned in exchange for an obligation not to interfere in German affairs.

  Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War (1630-1635)

  	Events of the Thirty Years' War	Results of the Thirty Years' War
  	Sweden sent 6 thousand soldiers under the command of Alexander Leslie to help Stralsund.
  	Leslie captured Ryugen Island.	Established control over the Straits of Stralsund.
  	The Swedish king Gustav II Adolf lands at the mouth of the Oder and occupies Mecklenburg and Pomerania.	The Swedish king Gustav II Adolf enters the war against Ferdinand II.
  	Wallenstein was removed from the post of commander-in-chief of the imperial army, field marshal Count Johann von Tilly was appointed instead.
  	Franco-Swedish treaty at Berwald.	France pledged to pay the Swedes an annual subsidy of 1 million francs.
  	Gustav II Adolf took Frankfurt an der Oder.
  	Defeat by the troops of the Catholic League of Magdeburg.	The Elector of Brandenburg Georg-Wilhelm joined the Swedes.
  	Count Tilly, having an army of 25,000 under his command, attacked the fortified camp of the Swedish troops commanded by King Gustav II Adolf near Verbena.	Was forced to retreat.
  	Battle of Breitenfeld.	The Swedish troops of Gustav II Adolf and the Saxon troops defeat the imperial troops of Count Tilly. The first major victory of the Protestants in clashes with the Catholics. All of northern Germany was in the hands of Gustavus Adolf, and he moved his actions to the south of Germany.
  December 1631	Gustav II Adolf took Halle, Erfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Mainz.
  	Saxon troops, allies of the Swedes, entered Prague.
  	The Swedes invaded Bavaria.	Gustav II Adolf defeated the imperial troops of Tilly (mortally wounded, died April 30, 1632) while crossing the Lech River and entered Munich.
  April 1632	Albrecht Wallenstein led the imperial army.
  	The Saxons are expelled from Prague by Wallenstein.
  August 1632	Near Nuremberg, in the Battle of Burgstall, when attacking the Wallenstein camp, the Swedish army of Gustav II Adolf was defeated.
  	Battle of Lützen.	The Swedish army wins the battle over Wallenstein's army, but King Gustav II Adolf is killed during the battle (Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar took command).
  	Sweden and the German Protestant principalities form the Heilbronn League.	All military and political power in Germany passed to an elected council headed by the Swedish Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna.
  	Battle of Nördlingen.	The Swedes under the command of Gustav Horn and the Saxons under the command of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar are defeated by imperial troops under the command of Prince Ferdinand (King of Bohemia and Hungary, son of Ferdinand II) and Matthias Gallas and the Spaniards under the command of the Infanta Cardinal Ferdinand (son of King Philip III of Spain). Gustav Horn was taken prisoner, the Swedish army was actually destroyed.
  	On suspicion of treason, Wallenstein was removed from command, a decree was issued on the confiscation of all his estates.	Wallenstein was killed by soldiers of his own guard at Eger Castle.
  	Prague world.	Ferdinand II makes peace with Saxony. The Treaty of Prague is accepted by the majority of Protestant princes. Its conditions: annulment of the "Edict of Restitution" and the return of possessions to the terms of the Peace of Augsburg; unification of the armies of the emperor and the German states; legalization of Calvinism; a ban on the formation of coalitions between the princes of the empire. In fact, the Peace of Prague ended the civil and religious war within the Holy Roman Empire, after which the Thirty Years' War continued as a struggle against Habsburg dominance in Europe.

  Franco-Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War (1635-1648)

  	Events of the Thirty Years' War	Results of the Thirty Years' War
  	France declared war on Spain.	France involved in the conflict its allies in Italy - the Duchy of Savoy, the Duchy of Mantua and the Venetian Republic.
  	The Spanish-Bavarian army under the command of the Spanish prince Ferdinand entered Compiègne, the imperial troops of Matthias Galas invaded Burgundy.
  	Battle of Wittstock.	The German troops were defeated by the Swedes under the command of Baner.
  	The Protestant army of Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar won the Battle of Rheinfelden.
  	Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar took the Breisach fortress.
  	The Imperial Army is victorious at Wolfenbüttel.
  	The Swedish troops of L. Torstenson defeated the imperial troops of Archduke Leopold and O. Piccolomini at Breitenfeld.	The Swedes occupy Saxony.
  	Battle of Rocroix.	The victory of the French army under the command of Louis II de Bourbon, Duke of Anghien (from 1646 Prince of Condé). The French finally stopped the Spanish invasion.
  	Battle of Tuttlingen.	The Bavarian army of Baron Franz von Mercy defeats the French under the command of Marshal Rantzau, who was captured.
  	Swedish troops under the command of Field Marshal Lennart Torstensson invaded Holstein, Jutland.
  August 1644	Louis II of Bourbon at the Battle of Freiburg defeats the Bavarians under the command of Baron Mercy.
  	Battle of Jankov.	The imperial army was defeated by the Swedes under the command of Marshal Lennart Torstensson near Prague.
  	Battle of Nördlingen.	Louis II of Bourbon and Marshal Turenne defeat the Bavarians, the Catholic commander, Baron Franz von Mercy, died in battle.
  	The Swedish army invades Bavaria
  	Bavaria, Cologne, France and Sweden sign a peace treaty in Ulm.	Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria, in the fall of 1647 broke the treaty.
  	The Swedes under the command of Koenigsmark capture part of Prague.
  	At the Battle of Zusmarhausen near Augsburg, the Swedes under Marshal Carl Gustav Wrangel and the French under Turenne and Conde defeat the Imperial and Bavarian forces.	Only the imperial territories and Austria proper remained in the hands of the Habsburgs.
  	At the Battle of Lans (near Arras), the French troops of the Prince of Condé defeat the Spaniards under the command of Leopold Wilhelm.
  	Westphalian peace.	Under the terms of the peace, France received Southern Alsace and the Lorraine bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, Sweden - the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania and the Duchy of Bremen, plus an indemnity of 5 million thalers. Saxony - Lusatia, Brandenburg - Eastern Pomerania, the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Minden. Bavaria - Upper Palatinate, Bavarian Duke became Elector. All princes are legally recognized the right to enter into foreign policy alliances. Consolidation of the fragmentation of Germany. End of the Thirty Years' War.

  The results of the war: Thirty Years' War was the first war that affected all segments of the population. In Western history, it has remained one of the most difficult European conflicts among the predecessors of the World Wars of the 20th century. The greatest damage was done to Germany, where, according to some estimates, 5 million people died. Many regions of the country were devastated and remained deserted for a long time. A crushing blow was dealt to the productive forces of Germany. In the armies of both opposing sides, epidemics broke out, constant companions of wars. The influx of soldiers from abroad, the constant deployment of troops from one front to another, as well as the flight of the civilian population, spread the plague farther and farther from the centers of disease. The plague became a significant factor in the war. The immediate result of the war was that over 300 small German states received full sovereignty with nominal membership in the Holy Roman Empire. This situation continued until the end of the first empire in 1806. The war did not lead to the automatic collapse of the Habsburgs, but changed the balance of power in Europe. Hegemony passed to France. The decline of Spain became evident. In addition, Sweden became a great power, significantly strengthening its position in the Baltic. Adherents of all religions (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism) gained equal rights in the empire. The main result of the Thirty Years' War was a sharp weakening of the influence of religious factors on the life of European states. Their foreign policy began to be based on economic, dynastic and geopolitical interests. It is customary to count the modern era in international relations from the Peace of Westphalia.

  
  
  

  Plan
  Introduction
  1 The balance of power in Europe
  2 The brewing of war
  3 Periodization of the war. Warring parties
  4 Course of the war
  4.1 Bohemian period 1618-1625
  4.2 Danish period 1625-1629
  4.3 Swedish period 1630-1635
  4.4 Franco-Swedish period 1635-1648
  
  5 Other conflicts at the same time
  6 Peace of Westphalia
  7 Consequences
  8 Military tactics and strategy
  Bibliography
  10 Battles of the Thirty Years' War

  Thirty Years' War

  Introduction

  The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) is one of the first pan-European military conflicts, affecting to one degree or another almost all European countries (including Russia), with the exception of Switzerland and Turkey. The war began as a religious clash between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, but then escalated into a struggle against Habsburg hegemony in Europe.

  1. The balance of power in Europe

  Since the time of Charles V, the leading role in Europe belonged to the House of Austria - the Habsburg dynasty. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Spanish branch of the house, in addition to Spain, also owned Portugal, the Southern Netherlands, the states of Southern Italy and, in addition to these lands, had at its disposal a huge Spanish-Portuguese colonial empire. The German branch - the Austrian Habsburgs - secured the crown of the Holy Roman Emperor, were the kings of the Czech Republic, Hungary, Croatia. The hegemony of the Habsburgs tried in every possible way to weaken other major European powers. Among the latter, the leading position was occupied by France, which was the largest of the nation-states.

  In Europe, there were several explosive regions where the interests of the warring parties intersected. The greatest number of contradictions accumulated in the Holy Roman Empire, which, in addition to the traditional struggle between the emperor and the German princes, was split along religious lines. Another knot of contradictions, the Baltic Sea, was also directly related to the Empire. Protestant Sweden (and also, to some extent, Denmark) sought to turn it into its own inland lake and gain a foothold on its southern coast, while Catholic Poland actively resisted the Swedish-Danish expansion. Other European countries advocated the freedom of Baltic trade.

  The third disputed region was the fragmented Italy, over which France and Spain fought. Spain had its opponents - the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland), which defended its independence in the war of 1568-1648, and England, which challenged Spanish dominance at sea and encroached on the colonial possessions of the Habsburgs.

  2. The brewing of war

  The Peace of Augsburg (1555) ended for a while the open rivalry between Lutherans and Catholics in Germany. Under the terms of the peace, the German princes could choose the religion (Lutheranism or Catholicism) for their principalities at their own discretion, according to the principle "Who rules, that is the faith" (lat. Cuius regio, eius religio).

  At the same time, the Catholic Church wanted to win back the lost influence. Censorship and the Inquisition intensified, the Jesuit order strengthened. The Vatican in every possible way pushed the remaining Catholic rulers to eradicate Protestantism in their possessions. The Habsburgs were ardent Catholics, but their imperial status obliged them to adhere to the principles of religious tolerance. Therefore, they gave way to the main place in the Counter-Reformation to the Bavarian rulers. Religious tension grew.

  For an organized rebuff to the growing pressure, the Protestant princes of South and West Germany united in the Evangelical Union, created in 1608. In response, the Catholics united in the Catholic League (1609). Both alliances were immediately supported by foreign states. Under these conditions, the activities of the all-imperial bodies - the Reichstag and the Judicial Chamber - were paralyzed.

  In 1617, both branches of the Habsburg dynasty entered into a secret agreement - the Treaty of Oñate, which settled the existing differences. Under its terms, Spain was promised lands in Alsace and northern Italy, which would provide a land connection between the Spanish Netherlands and the Italian possessions of the Habsburgs. In return, the Spanish king Philip III renounced his claims to the crown of the empire and agreed to support the candidacy of Ferdinand of Styria. The reigning Holy Roman Emperor and King Matthew of Bohemia had no direct heirs, and in 1617 he forced the Czech Sejm to recognize as his successor his nephew Ferdinand of Styria, an ardent Catholic and Jesuit pupil. He was extremely unpopular in the predominantly Protestant Czech Republic, which was the reason for the uprising, which escalated into a long conflict.

  3. Periodization of the war. Warring parties

  The Thirty Years' War is traditionally divided into four periods: Czech, Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish. Outside of Germany, there were several separate conflicts: the War of Spain with Holland, the War of the Mantuan Succession, the Russian-Polish War, the Polish-Swedish War, etc.

  On the side of the Habsburgs were: Austria, most of the Catholic principalities of Germany, Spain, united with Portugal, the Holy See, Poland. On the side of the anti-Habsburg coalition - France, Sweden, Denmark, the Protestant principalities of Germany, the Czech Republic, Transylvania, Venice, Savoy, the Republic of the United Provinces, supported by England, Scotland and Russia. In general, the war turned out to be a clash of traditional conservative forces with growing nation-states.

  The Habsburg bloc was more monolithic, the Austrian and Spanish houses kept in touch with each other, often conducting joint military operations. Wealthier Spain provided financial support to the emperor. There were major contradictions in the camp of their opponents, but they all receded into the background before the threat of a common enemy.

  The Ottoman Empire (the traditional enemy of the Habsburgs) in the first half of the 17th century was occupied with wars with Persia, in which the Turks suffered several serious defeats. The Commonwealth was not affected by the Thirty Years' War, but the Polish king Sigismund III sent an elite and cruel detachment of fox mercenaries to help the allied Habsburgs. In 1619, they defeated the army of the Transylvanian prince George I Rakoczi at the Battle of Humenny, after which Transylvania turned to the Ottoman sultan for military assistance. The Turks in the Battle of Khotyn were stopped by the army of the Commonwealth. The ensuing peace treaty did not bring any changes to the borders.

  4. The course of the war

  4.1. Czech period 1618-1625

  Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia

  On May 23, 1618, the opposition nobles, led by Count Turn, threw out of the windows of the Czech Chancellery into the ditch of the royal governors Slavata, Martinitsa and their secretary Fabricius (“Second Prague Defenestration”). After the death of Emperor Matthew, the leader of the Evangelical Union, Frederick V, Elector of the Palatinate, was chosen as king of Bohemia.

  "Prague Defenestration"

  In the autumn of the same year, 15,000 imperial soldiers, led by Count Buqua and Dampier, entered Bohemia. The Czech directory formed an army led by Count Thurn, in response to the requests of the Czechs, the Evangelical Union sent 20,000 soldiers under the command of Mansfeld. Dampier was defeated, and Bukua had to retreat to Ceska Budejovice.

  Thanks to the support of the Protestant part of the Austrian nobility, in 1619 Count Thurn approached Vienna, but met with stubborn resistance. At this time Bukua defeated Mansfeld near Ceske Budějovice (Battle of Sablat on June 10, 1619), and Turn had to retreat to the rescue. At the end of 1619, the Transylvanian prince Bethlen Gabor, with a strong army, also moved against Vienna, but the Hungarian magnate Druget Gomonai hit him in the rear and forced him to retreat from Vienna. On the territory of the Czech Republic, protracted battles were fought with varying success.

  Meanwhile, the Habsburgs made some diplomatic progress. August 28, 1619 Ferdinand was elected emperor. After that, he managed to get military support from Bavaria and Saxony. For this, the Elector of Saxony was promised Silesia and Lusatia, and the Duke of Bavaria was promised the possessions of the Elector of the Palatinate and his electoral rank. In 1620, Spain sent a 25,000-strong army under the command of Ambrosio Spinola to help the emperor.

  Under the command of General Tilly, the army of the Catholic League pacified upper Austria while the Imperial troops restored order in lower Austria. Then, having united, they moved to the Czech Republic, bypassing the army of Frederick V, who was trying to fight a defensive battle on distant lines. The battle took place near Prague (Battle of the White Mountain) on November 8, 1620. The Protestant army suffered a crushing defeat. As a result, the Czech Republic remained in the power of the Habsburgs for another 300 years.

  The defeat caused the collapse of the Evangelical Union and the loss of Frederick V of all his possessions and title. Frederick V was expelled from the Holy Roman Empire. He tried to enlist the support of the Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden. Bohemia fell, Bavaria gained the Upper Palatinate, and Spain captured the Palatinate, securing a springboard for another war with the Netherlands. The first phase of the war in eastern Europe finally came to an end when Gabor Bethlen signed peace with the emperor in January 1622, gaining vast territories in eastern Hungary for himself.

  Some historians distinguish a separate period of the Thirty Years' War 1621-1625 as the Palatinate period. The end of operations in the east meant the release of the imperial armies for operations in the west, namely in the Palatinate. The Protestants received small reinforcements in the person of Duke Christian of Brunswick and Margrave Georg-Friedrich of Baden-Durlach. April 27, 1622 Mansfeld defeated Tilly at Wiesloch. On May 6, 1622, Tilly and González de Cordoba, who came from the Netherlands with Spanish troops, defeated George Friedrich at Wimpfen. Mannheim and Heidelberg fell in 1622, and Frankenthal in 1623. The Palatinate was in the hands of the emperor. At the Battle of Stadtlon on August 6, 1623, the last Protestant forces were defeated. August 27, 1623 George Friedrich concluded a peace treaty with Ferdinand.

  Causes of the Thirty Years' War

  Emperor Matthew (1612-1619) was just as incapable a ruler as his brother Rudolph, especially in the tense state of affairs in Germany, when an inevitable and cruel struggle threatened between Protestants and Catholics. The struggle was accelerated by the fact that the childless Matthew appointed his cousin Ferdinand of Styria as his successor in Austria, Hungary and Bohemia. The steadfast character and Catholic jealousy of Ferdinand were well known; Catholics and Jesuits rejoiced that their time had come; Protestants and Hussites (Utraquists) in Bohemia could not expect anything good for themselves. The Bohemian Protestants built two churches for themselves on the monastic lands. The question arose - do they have the right to do so or not? The government decided that it was not, and one church was locked up, another was ruined. defenders, granted to the Protestants by the “Letter of Majesty”, gathered and sent a complaint to Emperor Matthew in Hungary; the emperor refused and forbade the defenders to gather for further meetings. This terribly annoyed the Protestants; they attributed such a decision to the imperial advisers who ruled Bohemia in the absence of Matthew, they were especially angry at two of them, Martinitsa and Slavat, distinguished by Catholic zeal.

  In the heat of irritation, the Hussite deputies of the state Bohemian ranks armed themselves and, under the leadership of Count Thurn, went to Prague Castle, where the board met. Entering the hall, they began to speak in large words with the advisers and soon turned from words to deeds: they seized Martinitz, Slavat and the secretary Fabricius and threw them out of the window “according to the good old Czech custom,” as one of those present put it (1618). By this act, the Czechs broke with the government. The ranks seized the government into their own hands, expelled the Jesuits from the country and put up an army under the leadership of Turn.

  Periods of the Thirty Years' War

  Czech period (1618–1625)

  The war began in 1619 and began happily for the insurgents; Thurn was joined by Ernst von Mansfeld, the daring leader of the mob squads; the Silesian, Lusatian and Moravian ranks raised the same banner with the Czechs and drove the Jesuits away from them; the imperial army was forced to clear Bohemia; Matthew died, and his successor, Ferdinand II, was besieged in Vienna itself by the troops of Thurn, with whom the Austrian Protestants joined.

  In this terrible danger, the steadfastness of the new emperor saved the throne of the Habsburgs; Ferdinand held on tight and held out until bad weather, lack of money and provisions forced Thurn to lift the siege of Vienna.

  Count Tilly. Van Dyck painter, c. 1630

  In Frankfurt, Ferdinand II was proclaimed emperor, and at the same time the ranks of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia broke away from the House of Habsburg and elected the head of the Protestant union, Elector Frederick V of the Palatinate, as king. Frederick accepted the crown and hurried to Prague for the coronation. The nature of the main rivals had an important influence on the outcome of the struggle: against the smart and firm Ferdinand II, the empty, inflexible Frederick V stood. In addition to the emperor, the Catholics also had Maximilian of Bavaria, strong in personal and material means; on the side of the Protestants, Maximilian corresponded to the elector John George of Saxony, but the correspondence between them was limited to material means alone, for John George bore the not very honorable title of the beer king; there was a rumor that he said that the animals that inhabited his forests were dearer to him than his subjects; finally, John George, as a Lutheran, did not want to have anything to do with the Calvinist Frederick V and sided with Austria when Ferdinand promised him the land of the puddles (Lusatia). Finally, the Protestants, beside the incapable princes, did not have capable generals, while Maximilian of Bavaria accepted into his service the famous general, the Dutchman Tilly. The fight was uneven.

  Frederick V arrived in Prague, but from the very beginning he behaved badly in his affairs, he did not get along with the Czech nobles, not allowing them to participate in the affairs of government, obeying only his Germans; he pushed away the passion for luxury and entertainment from himself, also by Calvin iconoclasm: all the images of saints, paintings and relics were taken out of the Prague Cathedral Church. Meanwhile, Ferdinand II concluded an alliance with Maximilian of Bavaria, with Spain, attracted the Elector of Saxony to his side, and brought Austrian officials into obedience.

  The troops of the emperor and the Catholic League, under the command of Tilly, appeared near Prague. In November 1620, a battle took place between them and the troops of Frederick at the White Mountain, Tilly won. Despite this misfortune, the Czechs did not have the means to continue the struggle, but their king Frederick completely lost his spirit and fled from Bohemia. Deprived of a leader, unity and direction of movement, the Czechs could not continue the struggle, and in a few months Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia were again subdued under the power of the House of Habsburg.

  Bitter was the fate of the vanquished: 30,000 families had to leave the fatherland; instead of them, a population alien to the Slavs and Czech history appeared. Bohemia was considered to have 30,000 inhabited places; only 11,000 remained after the war; before the war there were over 4 million inhabitants; in 1648 no more than 800,000 remained. A third of the land was confiscated; the Jesuits rushed to the prey: in order to break the closest connection between Bohemia and its past, in order to inflict the heaviest blow on the Czech people, they began to destroy books in the Czech language as heretical; one Jesuit boasted that he had burned over 60,000 volumes. It is clear what fate must have awaited Protestantism in Bohemia; two Lutheran pastors remained in Prague, whom they did not dare to expel, for fear of arousing the indignation of the Saxon elector; but the papal legate of Caraffa insisted that the emperor give the order to expel them. “The matter is going on,” said Caraffa, “not about two pastors, but about freedom of religion; as long as they are tolerated in Prague, not a single Czech will enter the bosom of the Church.” Some Catholics, the king of Spain himself, wanted to moderate the jealousy of the legate, but he did not pay attention to their ideas. “The intolerance of the House of Austria,” said the Protestants, “forced the Czechs to revolt.” “Heresy,” said Caraffa, “ignited a rebellion.” Emperor Ferdinand II expressed himself more strongly. "God himself," he said, "incited the Czechs to rebellion in order to give me the right and the means to destroy the heresy." The Emperor tore up the Letter of Majesty with his own hands.

  The means for the destruction of heresy were as follows: Protestants were forbidden to engage in any kind of skill, it was forbidden to marry, make wills, bury their dead, although they had to pay the cost of burial to the Catholic priest; they were not allowed into hospitals; soldiers with sabers in their hands drove them into churches, in the villages the peasants were driven there with dogs and whips; the soldiers were followed by Jesuits and Capuchins, and when a Protestant, in order to save himself from a dog and a whip, announced that he was converting to the Roman Church, he first of all had to declare that this conversion was made voluntarily. The imperial troops allowed themselves terrible cruelties in Bohemia: one officer ordered the killing of 15 women and 24 children; a detachment consisting of Hungarians burned seven villages, and all living things were exterminated, the soldiers chopped off the hands of babies and pinned them to their hats in the form of trophies.

  After the battle of the White Mountain, three Protestant princes continued to fight the league: Duke Christian of Brunswick, Ernst Mansfeld, already known to us, and Margrave Georg Friedrich of Baden-Durlach. But these defenders of Protestantism acted in exactly the same way as the champions of Catholicism: unfortunate Germany now had to experience what Russia experienced shortly before in the Time of Troubles and once experienced France in its time of troubles under Charles VI and Charles VII; the troops of the Duke of Brunswick and Mansfeld consisted of combined squads, completely similar to our Cossack squads of the Time of Troubles or the French Arminaks; people of different classes, who wanted to live merrily at the expense of others, flocked from everywhere under the banner of these leaders, not receiving salaries from the latter, lived by robbery and, like animals, raged against the peaceful population. German sources, in describing the horrors that Mansfeld's soldiers allowed themselves, almost repeat the news of our chroniclers about the ferocity of the Cossacks.

  Danish period (1625–1629)

  The Protestant partisans could not stand against Tilly, who triumphed everywhere, and Protestant Germany showed a complete incapacity for self-defence. Ferdinand II declared Frederick V deprived of the electoral dignity, which he transferred to Maximilian of Bavaria. But the strengthening of the emperor, the strengthening of the House of Austria, was to arouse fear in the powers and force them to support the German Protestants against Ferdinand II; at the same time, the Protestant powers, Denmark, Sweden, intervened in the war, besides political, and from religious motives, while Catholic France, ruled by the cardinal of the Roman Church, began to support the Protestants from purely political goals in order to prevent the House of Habsburg from growing dangerously for her.

  The first to intervene in the war was Christian IV, the Danish king. Emperor Ferdinand, who until now was dependent on the league, triumphant through Tilly, the commander Maximilian of Bavaria, now set his army against the Danish king, his commander: it was the famous Wallenstein (Waldstein) Wallenstein was a Czech of humble noble origin; born in Protestantism, he entered the house as an orphan as a minor, to a Catholic uncle, who converted him to Catholicism, gave him up to the Jesuits, and then enrolled him in the service of the Habsburgs. Here he distinguished himself in Ferdinand's war against Venice, then in the Bohemian war; having made a fortune for himself in his youth by a profitable marriage, he became even richer by buying up confiscated estates in Bohemia after the Battle of Belogorsk. He suggested to the emperor that he would recruit 50,000 troops and support him, without demanding anything from the treasury, if he was given unlimited power over this army and rewarded from the conquered lands. The emperor agreed, and Wallenstein fulfilled his promise: 50,000 people actually gathered around him, ready to go wherever there was prey. This huge Wallenstein squad brought Germany to the last stage of disaster: having captured some terrain, Wallenstein's soldiers began by disarming the inhabitants, then indulged in systematic robbery, sparing neither churches nor graves; having plundered everything that was in sight, the soldiers began to torture the inhabitants in order to force out an indication of hidden treasures, they managed to invent tortures, one more terrible than the other; finally, the demon of destruction took possession of them: without any benefit to themselves, out of a single thirst for extermination, they burned houses, burned utensils, agricultural implements; they stripped men and women naked and let hungry dogs on them, which they took with them for this hunt. The Danish War lasted from 1624 to 1629. Christian IV could not resist the forces of Wallenstein and Tilly. Holstein, Schleswig, Jutland were deserted; Wallenstein had already announced to the Danes that they would be treated like slaves if they did not elect Ferdinand II as their king. Wallenstein conquered Silesia, expelled the Dukes of Mecklenburg from their possessions, which he received as a fief from the emperor, the Duke of Pomeranian was also forced to leave his possessions. Christian IV of Denmark, in order to preserve his possessions, was forced to make peace (in Lübeck), pledging not to interfere anymore in German affairs. In March 1629, the emperor issued the so-called Restorative edict, according to which all her possessions, captured by the Protestants after the Treaty of Passava, were returned to the Catholic Church; apart from the Lutherans of the Augsburg Confession, the Calvinists and all other Protestant sects were excluded from the religious world. The Restorative Edict was issued to please the Catholic League; but soon this league, i.e., its leader Maximilian of Bavaria, demanded something else from Ferdinand: when the emperor expressed a desire that the league withdraw its troops from there to facilitate Franconia and Swabia, Maximilian, in the name of the league, demanded that the emperor himself dismiss Wallenstein and dissolve him an army that, with its robberies and cruelties, seeks to completely devastate the empire.

  

  Portrait of Albrecht von Wallenstein

  The imperial princes hated Wallenstein, an upstart who, from a simple nobleman and leader of a huge band of robbers, became a prince, insulted them with his proud address and did not hide his intention to place the imperial princes in the same relation to the emperor, in which the French nobility was to their king; Maximilian of Bavaria called Wallenstein "dictator of Germany". The Catholic clergy hated Wallenstein because he did not care at all about the interests of Catholicism, about spreading it in the areas occupied by his army; Wallenstein allowed himself to say: “One hundred years have already passed since Rome was last sacked; now he must be much richer than in the time of Charles V. Ferdinand II had to give in to the general hatred against Wallenstein and took away his command over the army. Wallenstein retired to his Bohemian estates, waiting for a more favorable time; he did not wait long.

  Swedish period (1630–1635)

  

  Portrait of Gustav II Adolf

  France, ruled by Cardinal Richelieu, could not indifferently see the strengthening of the House of Habsburg. Cardinal Richelieu first tried to oppose Ferdinand II with the strongest Catholic prince of the empire, the head of the league. He presented to Maximilian of Bavaria that the interests of all German princes required resistance to the growing power of the emperor, that the best way to maintain German freedom was to take the imperial crown from the Austrian house; the cardinal urged Maximilian to take the place of Ferdinand II, to become emperor, vouching for the help of France and its allies. When the head of the Catholic League did not succumb to the seductions of the cardinal, the latter turned to the Protestant sovereign, who alone was willing and able to fight against the Habsburgs. It was the Swedish king Gustavus Adolf, son and successor of Charles IX.

  Vigorous, gifted, and well educated, Gustavus Adolphus, from the very beginning of his reign, waged successful wars with his neighbors, and these wars, by developing his military abilities, strengthened his desire for a role more significant than the modest role played in Europe by his predecessors. He ended the war with Russia with the Peace of Stolbov, beneficial to Sweden, and considered himself entitled to announce to the Swedish Senate that the dangerous Muscovites were driven away from the Baltic Sea for a long time. On the Polish throne sat his cousin and mortal enemy Sigismund III, from whom he took Livonia. But Sigismund, as a zealous Catholic, was an ally of Ferdinand II, therefore, the power of the latter strengthened the Polish king and threatened Sweden with great danger; relatives of Gustav-Adolf, the dukes of Mecklenburg, were deprived of their possessions, and thanks to Wallenstein, Austria was established on the shores of the Baltic Sea. Gustavus Adolphus understood the basic laws of European political life and wrote to his Chancellor Oxenstierna: “All European wars are one huge war. It is more profitable to transfer the war to Germany than to be forced to defend oneself in Sweden later. Finally, religious convictions imposed on the Swedish king the obligation to prevent the destruction of Protestantism in Germany. That is why Gustav-Adolf willingly accepted Richelieu's proposal to act against the House of Austria in alliance with France, which meanwhile tried to settle peace between Sweden and Poland and thus untied Gustav-Adolf's hands.

  In June 1630, Gustavus Adolphus landed on the shores of Pomerania and soon cleared this country of imperial troops. The religiosity and discipline of the Swedish army was in striking contrast to the predatory character of the army of the league and the emperor, so the people in Protestant Germany received the Swedes very cordially; from the princes of Protestant Germany, the Dukes of Lüneburg, Weimar, Lauenburg and the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel took the side of the Swedes; but the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony were very reluctant to see the entry of the Swedes into Germany and remained inactive to the last extreme, despite the exhortations of Richelieu. The cardinal advised all the German princes, Catholics and Protestants, to take advantage of the Swedish war, unite and force the emperor to make peace, which would ensure their rights; if they now split up, some will become for the Swedes, others for the emperor, then this will lead to the final destruction of their fatherland; having one interest, they must act together against a common enemy.

  Tilly, who now commanded the troops of the league and the emperor together, spoke out against the Swedes. In the autumn of 1631, he met with Gustavus Adolf at Leipzig, was defeated, lost 7,000 of his best troops and retreated, giving the winner an open road to the south. In the spring of 1632, the second meeting of Gustav-Adolf with Tilly took place, which was strengthened at the confluence of the Lech into the Danube. Tilly could not defend the Lech crossings and received a wound from which he soon died. Gustavus Adolphus occupied Munich, while the Saxon troops entered Bohemia and captured Prague. In such an extreme case, Emperor Ferdinand II turned to Wallenstein. He forced himself to beg for a long time, finally agreed to again create an army and save Austria on the condition of unlimited disposal and rich land rewards. As soon as the news spread that the Duke of Friedland (the title of Wallenstein) had resumed his activities, seekers of prey rushed to him from all sides. Having ousted the Saxons from Bohemia, Wallenstein moved to the borders of Bavaria, fortified not far from Nuremberg, repulsed the attack of the Swedes on his camp and rushed into Saxony, still devastating everything in its path like locusts. Gustavus Adolf hurried after him to save Saxony. On November 6, 1632, the Battle of Lützen took place: the Swedes won, but lost their king.

  The behavior of Gustavus Adolf in Germany after the Leipzig victory aroused the suspicion that he wanted to establish himself in this country and receive imperial dignity: for example, in some places he ordered the inhabitants to swear allegiance to him, did not return the Palatinate to his former Elector Frederick, persuaded the German princes to join the Swedish service; he said that he was not a mercenary, that he could not be satisfied with money alone, that Protestant Germany should separate from Catholic Germany under a special head, that the structure of the German Empire was outdated, that the empire was a dilapidated building fit for rats and mice, and not for man.

  The strengthening of the Swedes in Germany particularly alarmed Cardinal Richelieu, who, in the interests of France, did not want Germany to have a strong emperor, Catholic or Protestant. France wanted to take advantage of the present turmoil in Germany to increase her possessions and let Gustavus Adolf know that she wanted to regain the heritage of the Frankish kings; to this the Swedish king replied that he had come to Germany not as an enemy or a traitor, but as a patron, and therefore could not agree that at least one village should be taken away from her; he also did not want to allow the French army to enter German soil. That is why Richelieu was very happy about the death of Gustavus Adolphe and wrote in his memoirs that this death delivered Christianity from many evils. But by Christianity we must understand here France, which really gained a lot from the death of the Swedish king, having received the opportunity to interfere directly in the affairs of Germany and get more than one village from her.

  After the death of Gustavus Adolphus, the government of Sweden, after the infancy of his only daughter and heiress Christina, passed to the State Council, which decided to continue the war in Germany and entrusted its conduct to Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna, a famous state mind. The strongest Protestant sovereigns of Germany, the Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, shied away from the Swedish alliance; Oxenstierna managed to conclude an alliance in Heilbronn (in April 1633) only with the Protestant ranks of Franconia, Swabia, the Upper and Lower Rhine. The Germans inspired Oxenstierna not a very favorable opinion of themselves. “Instead of going about their business, they only get drunk,” he told a French diplomat. Richelieu in his notes says about the Germans that they are ready to betray their most sacred obligations for money. Oxenstierna was appointed director of the Heilbronn League; command over the army was entrusted to Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar and the Swedish General Gorn; France helped with money.

  Meanwhile, Wallenstein, after the Battle of Lützen, began to show much less energy and enterprise than before. For a long time he remained inactive in Bohemia, then went to Silesia and Lusatia and, after minor battles, concluded a truce with enemies and entered into negotiations with the Electors of Saxony, Brandenburg and Oxenscherna; these negotiations were conducted without the knowledge of the Vienna court and aroused strong suspicion here. He freed Count Thurn, the implacable enemy of the House of Habsburg, from captivity, and instead of expelling the Swedes from Bavaria, he again settled in Bohemia, which suffered terribly from his army. From everything it was clear that he was looking for the death of his implacable enemy, Maximilian of Bavaria, and, knowing the intrigues of his enemies, he wanted to ensure himself from a second fall. Numerous opponents of him and envious people spread rumors that he wants to With help the Swedes to become an independent Bohemian king. The emperor believed these suggestions and decided to get rid of Wallenstein.

  Three of the most important generals in the army of the Duke of Friedland plotted against their commander in chief, and Wallenstein was killed at the beginning of 1634 in Jaeger. Thus perished the most famous ataman of a rabble gang, which, fortunately for Europe, no longer appeared in it after the Thirty Years' War. The war, especially at the beginning, was of a religious nature; but the soldiers of Tilly and Wallenstein did not rage out of religious fanaticism at all: they exterminated Catholics and Protestants alike, both their own and others. Wallenstein was a complete representative of his soldiers, was indifferent to faith, but believed in the stars, diligently studied astrology.

  After the death of Wallenstein, the emperor's son Ferdinand assumed command of the imperial army. In the autumn of 1634, the imperial troops united with the Bavarian troops and utterly defeated the Swedes at Nördlingen, Horn was captured. The elector of Saxony concluded a separate peace with the emperor in Prague, Brandenburg and other German princes followed his example; only Hesse-Kassel, Badei and Wirtemberg remained in the Swedish alliance.

  Franco-Swedish period (1635–1648)

  France took advantage of the weakening of the Swedes after the Battle of Nördlingen to clearly intervene in the affairs of Germany, restore balance between the fighting parties and receive a rich reward for this. Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, after the Nördlingen defeat, turned to France with a request for help; Richelieu concluded an agreement with him, according to which Bernhard's army was to be kept at the expense of France; Oxenstierna went to Paris and received a promise that a strong French corps would act in concert with the Swedes against the emperor; finally, Richelieu made an alliance with Holland against the Spanish, allies of the emperor.

  In 1636, military happiness again went over to the side of the Swedes, who were commanded by General Baner. Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar also happily fought on the Upper Rhine. He died in 1639, and the French took advantage of his death: they captured Alsace, which they had previously promised to Bernhard, and took his army for themselves as a mercenary. The French army appeared in southern Germany to act here against the Austrians and Bavarians. On the other hand, the French were active in the Spanish Netherlands: the young Prince of Conde began his brilliant career with a victory over the Spaniards at Rocroix.

  Peace of Westphalia 1648

  Meanwhile, in February 1637, Emperor Ferdinand II died, and under his son, Ferdinand III, peace negotiations began in Westphalia in 1643: in Osnabrück between the emperor and the Catholics on the one hand, and between the Swedes and Protestants on the other; in Munster - between Germany and France. The latter was then more powerful than all the states of Europe, and its claims aroused just fears. The French government did not hide its plans: according to Richelieu, two works were written (Dupuy and Cassan), which proved the rights of the French kings to various kingdoms, duchies, counties, cities and countries; it appeared that Castile, Arragon, Catalonia, Navarre, Portugal, Naples, Milan, Genoa, the Netherlands, England must belong to France; imperial dignity belongs to the French kings as the heirs of Charlemagne. The writers reached the point of being ridiculous, but Richelieu himself, without demanding Portugal and England, explained to Louis XIII about "natural boundaries" France. “It is not necessary,” he said, “to imitate the Spaniards, who are always trying to spread their possessions; France must think only about how to strengthen itself in itself, it is necessary to establish itself in Maine and reach Strasbourg, but at the same time it is necessary to act slowly and carefully; one can also think of Navarre and Franche-Comte.” Before his death, the cardinal said: “The purpose of my ministry was to return to Gaul its ancient borders assigned to it nature compare the new Gaul in everything with the ancient. It is not surprising, therefore, that during the Westphalian negotiations, the Spanish diplomats began to curry favor with the Dutch, even ventured to tell the latter that the Dutch waged a just war against Spain, for they defended their freedom; but it would be highly imprudent of them to help France to grow stronger in their neighbourhood. Spanish diplomats promised two Dutch commissioners 200,000 thalers; the king of France wrote to his representatives whether it was possible to persuade the Dutch to his side by some gift.

  In October 1648, the negotiations ended. France received the Austrian part of Alsace, Sundgau, Breisach, with the preservation for the imperial cities and the owners of their former relations with the empire. Sweden received most of Pomerania, the island of Rügen, the city of Wismar, the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, also with the preservation of their former relations with Germany. Brandenburg received part of Pomerania and several bishoprics; Saxony - the lands of the puddles (Lausitz); Bavaria - Upper Palatinate and retained the electoral dignity for her duke; The Lower Palatinate, with the newly established eighth electoral dignity, was given to the son of the unfortunate Frederick. Switzerland and the Netherlands were recognized as independent states. Regarding Germany, it was decided that the legislative power in the empire, the right to collect taxes, declare war and conclude peace belongs to the Sejm, consisting of the emperor and members of the empire; the princes received supreme power in their possessions with the right to conclude alliances among themselves and with other states, but not against the emperor and the empire. The imperial court, which decided the disputes of the ranks with each other and with their subjects, was to consist of judges of both confessions; at the Diets, the imperial cities received equal voting rights with the princes. Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists were granted complete religious and liturgical freedom and equality of political rights.

  Results of the Thirty Years' War

  The consequences of the Thirty Years' War were important for Germany and for the whole of Europe. In Germany, the imperial power has completely drooped, and the unity of the country has remained only in name. The empire was a motley mixture of heterogeneous possessions, which had the weakest connection with each other. Each prince ruled independently in his domain; but since the empire still existed in name, since there was a general authority in name, which was obliged to take care of the welfare of the empire, and meanwhile there was no force that could force this general authority to cooperate, the princes considered themselves entitled to postpone any care for the affairs of the common fatherland and have unlearned to take its interests to heart; their glances, their feelings have been reduced; They could not act separately because of their impotence, the insignificance of their means, and they completely lost the habit of any general action, not being very accustomed to it before, as we have seen; consequently they had to bow before every power. Since they lost consciousness of the highest governmental interests, the only goal of their aspirations was to feed themselves at the expense of their possessions and feed themselves as satisfyingly as possible; for this, after the Thirty Years' War, they had every opportunity: during the war they were accustomed to collecting taxes without asking with ranks; they did not abandon this habit even after the war, especially since the terribly devastated country, which required a long rest, could not put up forces that would have to be reckoned with; during the war, the princes arranged for themselves an army, it remained with them after the war, strengthening their power. Thus, the restriction of princely power by ranks that existed before disappeared, and the unlimited power of princes with bureaucracy was established, which could not be useful in small possessions, especially in the above-mentioned character adopted by the princes.

  In general, in Germany, material and spiritual development was stopped for a certain time by the terrible devastation caused by the gangs of Tilly, Wallenstein and the Swedish troops, who, after the death of Gustavus the throat of the most disgusting filth was known under the name of the Swedish drink. Germany, especially in the south and west, represented the desert. In Augsburg, out of 80,000 inhabitants, 18,000 remained; in Frankenthal, out of 18,000, only 324; in the Palatinate, only a fiftieth of the total population remained. In Hesse, 17 cities, 47 castles and 400 villages were burned.

  With regard to the whole of Europe, the Thirty Years' War, having weakened the House of Habsburg, crushed and completely weakened Germany, thereby raised France, made her the preeminent power in Europe. The consequence of the Thirty Years' War was also the fact that Northern Europe, represented by Sweden, took an active part in the fate of other states and was an important member of the European system. Finally, the Thirty Years' War was the last religious war; The Peace of Westphalia, proclaiming the equality of the three confessions, put an end to the religious struggle generated by the Reformation. The dominance of secular interests over spiritual ones is very noticeable during the Peace of Westphalia: spiritual possessions are taken away from the Church in a multitude, secularized, pass to secular Protestant lords; it was said that in Münster and Osnabrück the diplomats played with bishoprics and abbeys, as children play with nuts and dough. The pope protested against peace, but no one paid any attention to his protest.