Liberal reforms of the 60s

Description of the presentation Liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century on slides

Topic study plan 1. Reasons for the reforms of the 60s and 70s. XIX century 2. Local government reforms. a) Zemstvo reform b) City reform 3. Judicial reform. 4. Reforms of the education system. a) School reform. b) University reform 5. Military reform.

Reforms of Alexander II (1855 - 1881) Peasant (1861) Zemstvo (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) In the field of education (1863 -1864)

*Historians of the 19th – early 20th centuries. these reforms were assessed as great (K. D. Kavelin, V. O. Klyuchevsky, G. A. Dzhanshiev). * Soviet historians considered them unfinished and half-hearted (M. N. Pokrovsky, N. M. Druzhinina, V. P. Volobuev).

Name Contents of the reform Their significance Their shortcomings Peasant (1861) Zemstvo (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) In the field of education (1863 -1864)

6 Peasant reform: Manifesto and Regulations February 19, 1861 Results of the peasant reform Opened the way for the development of bourgeois relations in Russia Was incomplete in nature, gave rise to social antagonisms (contradictions) “Will” without land

Reforms Their significance Their shortcomings Peasant aya (1861) A turning point, the line between feudalism and capitalism. It created the conditions for the establishment of the capitalist system as the dominant one. Preserved the remnants of serfdom; the peasants did not receive full ownership of the land, had to pay a ransom, and lost part of the land (cuts).

Local government reform In 1864, the “Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions” were introduced. Bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were created in districts and provinces.

9 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864). “Regulations on provincial governors”). “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” and district zemstvo institutions” Contents of the reform Creation of provincial and district zemstvos - elected bodies of local government in rural areas Functions of zemstvos Maintenance of local schools, hospitals; construction of local roads; organization of agricultural statistics, etc.

11 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864).). “Regulations on provincial “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” and district zemstvo institutions” Structure of zemstvo institutions Zemstvo government is an executive body and elected for 3 years Zemstvo assembly consisting of vowels (vowels are elected members of zemstvo assemblies and city dumas) the administrative body was elected by the population on a census basis based on class, collected annually

Zemstvo reform In the zemstvo, including in its permanent bodies (governments), representatives of all classes worked together. But the leading role was still played by the nobles, who looked down on the “men’s” vowels. And peasants often treated participation in the work of the zemstvo as a duty and elected arrears to the council. Zemstvo Assembly in the province. Engraving based on a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.

Curiae are the categories into which voters were divided according to property and social characteristics in pre-revolutionary Russia during elections.

Zemstvo reform 1 member (deputy) for the landowner and peasant curiae was elected from every 3 thousand peasant plots. According to the city curia - from the owners of property equal in value to the same amount of land. How many peasant votes were equal to the vote of a landowner with 800 dessiatines? , if the shower allotment was 4 dessiatines. ? In this case, 1 vote of the landowner = 200 votes of the peasants. Why, when creating zemstvo bodies, was not equal suffrage ensured for peasants, townspeople and landowners? Because in this case, the educated minority would “drown” in the illiterate dark peasant masses. ?

Zemstvo reform Zemstvo assemblies met once a year: district - for 10 days, provincial - for 20 days. Class composition of zemstvo assemblies? Why was the share of peasants noticeably lower among provincial councilors than among district councilors? Nobles Merchants Peasants Other District zemstvo 41, 7 10, 4 38, 4 9, 5 Provincial zemstvo 74, 2 10, 9 10, 6 4, 3 The peasants were not ready to engage in provincial affairs that were far from their daily needs. And getting to the provincial town was far and expensive.

Zemstvo reform Zemstvo assembly in the province. Engraving based on a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. Zemstvos received the right to invite specialists in certain sectors of the economy to work - teachers, doctors, agronomists - zemstvo employees Zemstvos were introduced at the level of counties and provinces Zemstvos decide not only local economic affairs, but are also actively involved in the political struggle

Your comments. Zemstvos. The Moscow nobleman Kireev wrote about zemstvos: “We, the nobles, are vowels; merchants, townspeople, clergy are willing, peasants are mute.” Explain what the author wanted to say?

Zemstvo reform Zemstvos dealt exclusively with economic issues: building roads, fighting fires, agronomic assistance to peasants, creating food reserves in case of crop failure, maintaining schools and hospitals. For this purpose zemstvo taxes were collected. Zemstvo Assembly in the province. Engraving based on a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. 1865 ? What groups are the zemstvo vowels divided into in K. Trutovsky’s drawing?

Thanks to zemstvo doctors, rural residents received qualified medical care for the first time. The zemstvo doctor was a generalist: therapist, surgeon, dentist, obstetrician. Sometimes operations had to be done in a peasant hut. Off-road in the Tver province. Zemstvo doctor. Hood. I. I. Tvorozhnikov.

Zemstvo reform Teachers played a special role among zemstvo employees. What do you think this role was? The zemstvo teacher not only taught children arithmetic and literacy, but was often the only literate person in the village. The teacher's arrival in the village. Hood. A. Stepanov. ? Thanks to this, the teacher became a bearer of knowledge and new ideas for the peasants. It was among the zemstvo teachers that there were especially many liberal and democratically minded people.

Zemstvo reform In 1865–1880. in Russia there were 12 thousand rural zemstvo schools, and in 1913 - 28 thousand. Zemstvo teachers taught over 2 million peasant children, including girls, to read and write. However, initial training never became compulsory. The training programs were developed by the Ministry of Education. Class at the zemstvo school in the Penza province. 1890s ? What, judging by the photograph, distinguished a zemstvo school from a state or parish school?

23 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864).). “Regulations on provincial “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” and district zemstvo institutions” Significance contributed to the development of education, health care, local improvement; became centers of the liberal social movement; restrictions were initially introduced in 35 provinces (by 1914 they operated in 43 out of 78 provinces); volost zemstvos were not created; they operated under the control of the administration (governors and the Ministry of Internal Affairs)

Zemstvo (1864) The most energetic, democratic intelligentsia grouped around the zemstvos. The activities were aimed at improving the situation of the masses. Class elections; the range of issues resolved by zemstvos is limited. Reforms Their significance Their disadvantages

Urban reform began to be prepared in 1862, but due to the assassination attempt on Alexander II, its implementation was delayed. The city regulations were adopted in 1870. The City Duma remained the highest body of city government. Elections were held in three curiae. Curias were formed on the basis of property qualifications. A list of voters was compiled in descending order of the amount of city taxes they paid. Each curia paid 1/3 of the taxes. The first curia was the richest and smallest in number, the third was the poorest and most numerous. ? What do you think: were city elections held on an all-estate or non-estate basis?

Urban reform City self-government: Voters of the 1st curia Voters of the 2nd curia Voters of the 3rd curia. City Duma (administrative body) City government (executive body) elects the mayor

Urban reform The head of city government was the elected mayor. In large cities, a nobleman or a wealthy guild merchant was usually chosen as the city mayor. Like zemstvos, city dumas and councils were in charge exclusively of local amenities: paving and lighting streets, maintaining hospitals, almshouses, orphanages and city schools, taking care of trade and industry, organizing water supply and urban transport. Samara mayor P.V. Alabin.

28 City Reform of 1870 – – “City Regulations” “City Regulations” Essence Creation in cities of bodies similar to zemstvos in function and structure The city mayor was in charge The city government was elected The City Duma, consisting of vowels, was elected by the population on a census-free basis

Gorodskaya (1870) Contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in governance, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia. The activities of city government were controlled by the state. Reforms Their significance Their disadvantages

Judicial reform - 1864 Zemstvo Assembly in the province. Engraving based on a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. Principles of legal proceedings Unclassified - the court's decision does not depend on the class of the accused Electiveness - the magistrate and jury Transparency - the public could be present at court hearings, the press could report on the progress of the trial Independence - the judges could not be influenced by the administration Adversarial - participation of the prosecutor in the trial (prosecution) and lawyer (defense)

33 Judicial reform 1864 The judge is appointed by the Ministry of Justice (principle of irremovability of judges) Delivers a sentence in accordance with the law based on the verdict of the jury Basis of the reform Judicial Statutes introduction of jury trials

34 Judicial reform of 1864 Jurors are selected from representatives of all classes (!) on the basis of property qualifications 12 people Make a verdict (decision) on the guilt, its degree or innocence of the defendant

Judicial reform Judges received high salaries. The decision on the guilt of the accused was made by the jury after hearing witnesses and debates between the prosecutor and lawyer. A Russian citizen from 25 to 70 years of age (qualifications: property and residence) could become a juror. The court's decision could be appealed.

36 Judicial reform of 1864 Additional elements of judicial reform The following were created: special courts for military personnel special courts for clergy magistrates' courts for the consideration of minor civil and criminal offenses

37 Judicial reform of 1864 Structure of the judiciary in Russia The Senate is the highest judicial and cassation (cassation - appeal, protest against the verdict of a lower court) body Trial chambers courts for considering the most important cases and appeals (complaint, appeal for reconsideration of the case) against decisions of district courts District courts Judicial bodies of first instance. Considers complex criminal and civil cases Lawyer Prosecutor Magistrates' courts minor criminal and civil cases 12 jurors (qualification)

Judicial reform Minor offenses and civil litigation (claim amount up to 500 rubles) were dealt with by the magistrate court. The magistrate decided cases single-handedly and could impose a fine (up to 300 rubles), arrest for up to 3 months, or imprisonment for up to 1 year. Such a trial was simple, quick and cheap. World judge. Modern drawing.

Judicial reform The justice of the peace was elected by zemstvos or city dumas from among persons over 25 years of age, with at least a secondary education, and at least three years of judicial experience. The magistrate had to own real estate worth 15 thousand rubles. It was possible to appeal the decisions of the magistrate at the district congress of magistrates. District Congress of Justices of the Peace of the Chelyabinsk District.

Judicial reform Public participation: 12 lay judges and jurors participated in the trial. The jury returned a verdict: “guilty”; “guilty, but deserves leniency”; "innocent" Based on the verdict, the judge pronounced a sentence. Modern drawing.

Judicial reform Jurors were elected by provincial zemstvo assemblies and city dumas on the basis of property qualifications, without taking into account class affiliation. Jurors. Drawing from the beginning of the 20th century. ? What can you tell about the composition of the jury based on this picture?

Judicial reform Adversarialism: In criminal proceedings, the prosecution was supported by the prosecutor, and the defense of the accused was carried out by a lawyer (sworn attorney). In a jury trial, where the verdict did not depend on professional lawyers, the role of the lawyer was enormous. The largest Russian lawyers: K. K. Arsenyev, N. P. Karabchevsky, A. F. Koni, F. N. Plevako, V. D. Spasovich. Fyodor Nikiforovich Plevako (1842–1908) speaks in court.

Judicial reform Glasnost: The public began to be allowed into court hearings. Trial reports were published in the press. Special court reporters appeared in newspapers. Lawyer V.D. Spasovich: “To a certain extent, we are knights of the living, free word, freer now than in the press, which the most zealous, fierce chairmen will not calm down, because by the time the chairman thinks about stopping you, the word has already galloped three miles away and his can't be returned." Portrait of lawyer Vladimir Danilovich Spasovich. Hood. I. E. Repin. 1891.

44 Judicial reform 1864 The significance of judicial reform The most advanced judicial system in the world at that time was created. A big step in the development of the principle of “separation of powers” ​​and democracy. The preservation of elements of bureaucratic arbitrariness: administrative punishment, etc. retained a number of relics of the past: special courts.

45 Military reform of the 60s - 70s. XIX-XIX centuries. Military reform of the 60s - 70s. XIX-XIX centuries The immediate impetus was the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853 -1856.

Directions of military reform The result is a mass army of a modern type

Military reform The first step of military reform was the abolition of military settlements in 1855. In 1861, on the initiative of the new Minister of War D. A. Milyutin, the service life was reduced from 25 years to 16 years. In 1863, corporal punishment was abolished in the army. In 1867, a new military judicial charter was introduced, based on the general principles of judicial reform (transparency, adversarialism). Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912), Minister of War in 1861–1881.

Military reform In 1863, a reform of military education was carried out: cadet corps were transformed into military gymnasiums. Military gymnasiums provided a broad general education (Russian and foreign languages, mathematics, physics, natural science, history). The training load doubled, but physical and general military training was reduced. Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912), Minister of War in 1861–1881.

1) The creation of military gymnasiums and schools for nobles, cadet schools for all classes, the opening of the Military Law Academy (1867) and the Naval Academy (1877)

According to the new regulations, the task was to teach troops only what is necessary in war (shooting, loose formation, engineering), the time for drill training was reduced, and corporal punishment was prohibited.

Military reform What measure should have been the main one in the course of military reform? Cancellation of recruitment. What were the disadvantages of the recruitment system? The inability to quickly increase the army in wartime, the need to maintain a large army in peacetime. Recruitment was suitable for serfs, but not for free people. Non-commissioned officer of the Russian army. Hood. V. D. Polenov. Fragment. ? ?

Military reform What could replace the recruitment system? Universal conscription. The introduction of universal conscription in Russia with its vast territory required the development of the road network. Only in 1870 was a commission created to discuss this issue, and on January 1, 1874, a Manifesto was published on the replacement of conscription with universal military service. Sergeant of the Dragoon Regiment. 1886?

Military reform All men aged 21 were subject to conscription. The service period was 6 years in the army and 7 years in the navy. Only breadwinners and only sons were exempt from conscription. What principle was used as the basis for the military reform: all-class or classless? Formally, the reform was classless, but in fact the class system was largely preserved. "Lagged behind". Hood. P. O. Kovalevsky. Russian soldier of the 1870s. in full marching gear. ?

Military reform How were the remnants of class manifested in the Russian army after 1874? The fact is that the officer corps remained mainly noble, the rank and file - peasant. Portrait of Lieutenant of the Life Guards Hussar Regiment, Count G. Bobrinsky. Hood. K. E. Makovsky. Drummer of the Life Guards Pavlovsk Regiment. Hood. A. Detail. ?

Military reform During the military reform, benefits were established for recruits who had secondary or higher education. Those who graduated from high school served for 2 years, those who graduated from university served for 6 months. In addition to the shortened service life, they had the right to live not in the barracks, but in private apartments. Volunteer of the 6th Klyastitsky Hussar Regiment

Smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, cast-iron guns were replaced by steel ones, the H. Berdan rifle (Berdanka) was adopted by the Russian army, and the construction of a steam fleet began.

Military reform In which social groups do you think the military reform caused discontent and what were its motives? The conservative nobility was unhappy that people from other classes had the opportunity to become officers. Some nobles were outraged that they could be drafted as soldiers along with the peasants. The merchants, who were previously not subject to conscription, were especially dissatisfied. Merchants even offered to take on the maintenance of disabled people if they were allowed to buy their way out of conscription. ?

59 Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIX-XIX centuries. Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIX-XIX centuries The most important element of the reform was the replacement of the recruitment system with universal military service. Compulsory military service for men of all classes from the age of 20 (6 years in the army, 7 years in the navy) with subsequent stay in the reserve. Benefits were provided for persons with higher and secondary education. education (the rights of those who volunteer), clergy and some other categories of the population were released. Significance: the creation of massive combat-ready armed forces; increasing the country's defense capability

The meaning of the reform: the creation of a mass army of a modern type, the authority of military service was raised, a blow to the class system. Disadvantages of the reform: miscalculations in the system of organizing and arming the troops. Military reform of 1874

62 Education reforms. Education reforms School reform of 1864 Formation of a new structure of primary and secondary education Public schools District 3 years of study Parish since 1884 parochial schools 3 years of study Gymnasiums 4 years of study Urban 6 years of study Primary education

School reform (Secondary education) Classical and real gymnasiums were intended for the children of nobles and merchants. “Charter of gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums” November 19, 1864 Pro-gymnasium. Duration of study 4 years Classical gymnasium 7-grade, duration of study 7 years Real gymnasium 7-grade Duration of study 7 years The curriculum of classical gymnasiums was dominated by ancient and foreign languages, ancient history, and ancient literature. The curriculum of real gymnasiums was dominated by mathematics, physics and other technical subjects. We were preparing to enter the gymnasium. They were located in county towns.

School reform In 1872, the period of study in classical gymnasiums was increased to 8 years (the 7th grade became two-year), and from 1875 they officially became 8-grade. Real gymnasiums retained the 7-year course of study and in 1872 were transformed into real schools. If graduates of classical gymnasiums entered universities without exams, then realists had to take exams in ancient languages. Without exams, they entered only technical universities. What caused such restrictions for graduates of real schools? Children of nobles often studied in classical gymnasiums, while children of merchants and commoners studied in real ones. ?

The university reform was the first after the abolition of serfdom, which was caused by student unrest. The new university charter to replace the Nikolaev charter of 1835 was adopted on June 18, 1863. The initiator of the new charter was the Minister of Education A.V. Golovnin. Universities received autonomy. Councils of universities and faculties were created, which elected rector and deans, awarded academic titles, and distributed funds among departments and faculties. Andrei Vasilyevich Golovnin (1821 -1886), Minister of Education in 1861–1866.

University reform Universities had their own censorship and received foreign literature without customs inspection. Universities had their own courts and security; the police did not have access to university premises. Golovnin proposed creating student organizations and involving them in university self-government, but the State Council rejected this proposal. Andrei Vasilyevich Golovnin (1821 -1886), Minister of Education in 1861–1866. ? Why was this proposal excluded from the university statutes?

Classic. Reform in the field of public education Changes in the education system University Charter 1863 School Charter 1864 Autonomy Gymnasiums Real Prepared for admission to the university Prepared for admission to higher technical educational institutions. A university council was created, which decided all internal issues. Election of the rector and teachers. Restrictions for students were lifted (their offenses were considered by the student court)

Women's education In the 60s and 70s. Women's higher education appeared in Russia. Women were not accepted into universities, but in 1869 the first Higher Women's Courses were opened. The most famous courses were those opened by V. I. Guerrier in Moscow (1872) and K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin in St. Petersburg (1878). Guerrier’s courses included only the department of literature and history. The Bestuzhev courses include mathematical and verbal history departments. 2/3 of the students studied mathematics. Student. Hood. N. A. Yaroshenko.

Reforms in the field of education (1863 -1864) The meaning of the reforms: expansion and improvement of education at all levels. Disadvantages of the reforms: inaccessibility of secondary and higher education for all segments of the population.

Judicial (1864) The most advanced judicial system in the world at that time. It retained a number of remnants: special courts. Military (1874) Creation of a mass army of a modern type, the authority of military service was raised, a blow to the class system. Miscalculations in the system of organization and armament of troops. In the field of education (1863 -186 4) Expansion and improvement of education at all levels. Inaccessibility of secondary and higher education for all segments of the population. Reforms Their significance Their disadvantages

71 Results and significance of the reforms Led to a significant acceleration of the country's development, brought Russia closer to the level of the leading powers of the world. Were incomplete and incomplete. In the 80s they were replaced by counter-reforms of Alexander III

The significance of the Zemstvo Assembly reforms in the province. Engraving based on a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. The country's advancement along the path of capitalist development, along the path of transforming the feudal monarchy into a bourgeois monarchy and the development of democracy. The reforms were a step from the landowner state to the legal state. The reforms demonstrated that positive changes in society can be achieved not by revolutions, but by transformations from above, peacefully

Let's summarize: What is the historical significance of the reforms of the 60s and 70s? ? Thanks to the reforms of the 60s and 70s. many issues of everyday life were transferred from the jurisdiction of the bureaucracy to the responsibility of society in the person of zemstvos and city dumas; the equality of Russian citizens before the law was established; The literacy level of the population has increased significantly; universities received a greater degree of freedom in scientific and educational activities; censorship for the central press and book publishing was relaxed; the army began to be built on the basis of classless universal military service, which corresponded to the principle of equality before the law and made it possible to create trained reserves. ?

Alexander II was the All-Russian Emperor, the Polish Tsar and the Grand Duke of Finland from 1855 to 1881. He came from the Romanov dynasty.

Alexander II is remembered as an outstanding innovator who carried out liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century. Historians are still arguing about whether they improved or worsened the socio-economic and political situation in our country. But the role of the emperor is difficult to overestimate. It is not for nothing that in Russian historiography he is known as Alexander the Liberator. The ruler received this honorary title for the death of Alexander II as a result of a terrorist attack, for which activists of the People's Will movement took responsibility.

Judicial reform

In 1864, an important document was published that largely changed the justice system in Russia. This was the Judicial Charter. It was in it that the liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century manifested themselves very clearly. This charter became the basis of a unified system of courts, the activities of which from now on were to be based on the principle of equality of all segments of the population before the law. Now the meetings at which both civil and criminal cases were considered became public, and their results were to be published in printed publications. The parties to the litigation must use the services of a lawyer who has a higher education and is not in the public service.

Despite significant innovations aimed at strengthening the capitalist system, the liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century retained remnants of serfdom. For peasants, specialized ones were created that could also impose beatings as punishment. If political trials were considered, then administrative repression was inevitable, even if the verdict was not guilty.

Zemstvo reform

Alexander II realized the need to make changes to the local government system. Liberal reforms of the 60-70s led to the creation of elected zemstvo bodies. They had to deal with issues related to taxation, medical care, primary education, financing, etc. Elections to district and zemstvo councils took place in two stages and provided the majority of seats in them to the nobles. Peasants were given a minor role in resolving local issues. This situation remained until the end of the 19th century. A slight change in proportions was achieved by the entry into the councils of kulaks and merchants, who came from a peasant environment.

Zemstvos were elected for four years. They dealt with local government issues. In any cases affecting the interests of the peasants, the decision was made in favor of the landowners.

Military reform

Changes also affected the army. The liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century were dictated by the need for urgent modernization of military mechanisms. The transformation was led by D. A. Milyutin. The reform took place in several stages. At first the whole country was divided into military districts. A number of documents were issued for this purpose. The normative act on universal military conscription, signed by the emperor in 1862, became central. He replaced recruitment into the army with general mobilization, regardless of class. The main goal of the reform was to reduce the number of soldiers in peacetime and the possibility of quickly collecting them in the event of an unexpected outbreak of hostilities.

As a result of the transformations, the following results were achieved:

1. An extensive network of military and cadet schools was created, in which representatives of all classes studied.
2. The size of the army was reduced by 40%.
3. The main headquarters and military districts were founded.
4. In the army, the tradition was abolished for the slightest offense.
5. Global rearmament.

Peasant reform

During the reign of Alexander II, it almost became obsolete. The Russian Empire carried out liberal reforms in the 60-70s. XIX century with the main goal of creating a more developed and civilized state. It was impossible not to touch upon the most important life. Peasant unrest became increasingly stronger, especially aggravated after the grueling Crimean War. The state turned to this segment of the population for support during the hostilities. The peasants were sure that the reward for this would be their liberation from landowner arbitrariness, but their hopes were not justified. Riots broke out more and more often. If in 1855 there were 56 of them, then in 1856 their number already exceeded 700.
Alexander II ordered the creation of a specialized committee for peasant affairs, which included 11 people. In the summer of 1858, a reform project was presented. He envisioned the organization of local committees, which would include the most authoritative representatives of the noble nobility. They were given the right to amend the project.

The main principle on which the liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century in the field of serfdom were based was the recognition of the personal independence of all subjects of the Russian Empire. Nevertheless, the landowners remained the full owners and owners of the land on which the peasants worked. But the latter had the opportunity over time to buy the plot on which they worked, along with outbuildings and living quarters. The project caused a wave of indignation from both landowners and peasants. The latter were against landless liberation, arguing that “air alone will not satisfy you.”

Fearing an aggravation of the situation associated with peasant revolts, the government is making significant concessions. The new reform project was more radical in nature. Peasants were given personal freedom and a plot of land for permanent possession with subsequent right of redemption. For this purpose, a preferential lending program was developed.

On February 19, 1861, the emperor signed a manifesto that legislated the innovations. After this, regulations were adopted that regulated in detail the issues that arose during the implementation of the reform. After serfdom was abolished, the following results were achieved:

1. The peasants received personal independence, as well as the opportunity to dispose of all their property at their own request.
2. The landowners remained the full owners of their land, but were obliged to give certain plots to the former serfs.
3. For the use of rented plots, peasants had to pay a quitrent, which could not be refused for nine years.
4. The dimensions of corvée and allotment were recorded in special documents, which were verified by intermediary bodies.
5. Over time, peasants could buy out their land plot in agreement with the landlord.

Education reform

The education system has also changed. Real schools were created, in which, unlike standard gymnasiums, the emphasis was on mathematics and natural sciences. In 1868, the only higher courses for women at that time began to function in Moscow, which was a big breakthrough in terms of gender equality.

Other reforms

In addition to all of the above, changes have affected many other areas of life. Thus, the rights of Jews expanded significantly. They were allowed to move freely throughout Russia. Representatives of the intelligentsia, doctors, lawyers and artisans received the right to move and work in their specialty.

The 8th grade of secondary school studies in detail the liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century.

World historical theory

Materialist historians(I.A. Fedosov and others) define the period of abolition of serfdom as a sharp transition from a feudal socio-economic formation to a capitalist one. They believe that the abolition of serfdom in Russia late, and the reforms that followed it were carried out slowly and incompletely. Half-heartedness in carrying out reforms caused indignation among the advanced part of society- the intelligentsia, which then resulted in terror against the tsar. Marxist revolutionaries believed that the country was “led” down the wrong path of development- “slowly cutting off the rotting parts”, but it was necessary to “lead” along the path of a radical solution to problems - carrying out the confiscation and nationalization of landowners’ lands, the destruction of the autocracy, etc.

Liberal historians contemporaries of the events, V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911), S.F. Platonov (1860-1933) and others, welcomed both the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms. Defeat in the Crimean War, they believed, revealed Russia's technical lag behind attack and undermined the country's international prestige.

Later liberal historians ( I. N. Ionov, R. Pipes, etc.) began to note that in mid-nineteenth century serfdom reached its highest point of economic efficiency. The reasons for the abolition of serfdom are political. Russia's defeat in the Crimean War dispelled the myth of the military power of the Empire, caused irritation in society and a threat to the stability of the country. The interpretation focuses on the cost of reform. Thus, the people were not historically prepared for drastic socio-economic changes and “painfully” accepted the changes in their lives. The government did not have the right to abolish serfdom and carry out reforms without comprehensive socio-moral training of the entire people, especially nobles and peasants. According to liberals, the centuries-old way of Russian life cannot be changed by force.

ON THE. Nekrasov in his poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” writes:

The great chain has broken,

tore and hit:

one end on the master,

others - man!...

Historians of the technological direction (V. A. Krasilshchikov, S. A. Nefedov, etc.) believe that the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms are due to the stage of Russia’s modernization transition from a traditional (agrarian) society to an industrial one. The transition from traditional to industrial society in Russia was carried out by the state during the period of influence from the 17th-18th centuries. European cultural and technological circle (modernization - Westernization) and took the form of Europeanization, that is, a conscious change in traditional national forms according to the European model.

“Machine progress in Western Europe, tsarism “forced” actively to impose industrial orders. And this determined the specifics of modernization in Russia. The Russian state, selectively borrowing technical and organizational elements from the West, simultaneously preserved traditional structures. As a result, the country has developed situation of “overlapping historical eras””(industrial - agrarian), which later led to social shocks.

Industrial society, introduced by the state at the expense of the peasants, came into sharp conflict with all the fundamental conditions of Russian life and should inevitably give rise to protest both against the autocracy, which did not give the desired freedom to the peasant, and against the private owner, a figure previously alien to Russian life. The industrial workers who appeared in Russia as a result of industrial development inherited the hatred of the entire Russian peasantry with its centuries-old communal psychology towards private property.

Tsarism interpreted as a regime forced to industrialize but unable to cope with its consequences.

Local historical theory.

The theory is represented by the works of Slavophiles and Narodniks. Historians believed that Russia, unlike Western countries, follows its own special path of development. They justified the possibility in Russia of a non-capitalist path of development to socialism through the peasant community.

Reforms of Alexander II

Land reform. The main question in Russia during the 18th-19th centuries there was a land-peasant system. Catherine II raised this question in the work of the Free Economic Society, which reviewed several dozen programs for the abolition of serfdom by both Russian and foreign authors. Alexander I issued a decree “On Free Plowmen,” which allowed landowners to free their peasants from serfdom along with the land for a ransom. Nicholas I During the years of his reign, he created 11 secret committees on the peasant issue, whose task was to abolish serfdom and resolve the land issue in Russia.

In 1857, by decree of Alexander II started to work secret committee on the peasant question, whose main task was the abolition of serfdom with the mandatory allocation of land to peasants. Then such committees were created in the provinces. As a result of their work (and the wishes and orders of both landowners and peasants were taken into account) there was a reform has been developed to abolish serfdom for all regions of the country, taking into account local specifics. For different areas there were the maximum and minimum values ​​of the allotment transferred to the peasant are determined.

Emperor On February 19, 1861, he signed a number of laws. Was here Manifesto and Regulations on the granting of freedom to the peasants us, documents on the entry into force of the Regulations, on the management of rural communities, etc.

Abolition of serfdom was not a one-time event. First, landowner peasants were freed, then appanage peasants and those assigned to factories. Peasants received personal freedom, but the land remained the property of the landowners, and while plots were allocated, peasants were in the position of “temporarily obligated” bore duties in favor of the landowners, which were essentially no different from the previous serfs. The plots transferred to the peasants were on average 1/5 smaller than those they had previously cultivated. To these lands buyout agreements were concluded, after this, the “temporarily obligated” state ceased, the treasury paid for the land with the landowners, the peasants - with the treasury for 49 years at the rate of 6% per annum (redemption payments).

Use of land and relationships with authorities were built through the community. It was preserved as a guarantor of peasant payments. The peasants were attached to society (the world).

As a result of reforms serfdom was abolished- that “obvious and palpable evil”, which in Europe was directly called “ Russian slavery." However, the land problem was not solved, since the peasants, when dividing the land, were forced to give the landowners a fifth of their plots.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the first Russian revolution broke out in Russia, a peasant revolution largely in terms of the composition of the driving forces and the tasks that faced it. This is what made P.A. Stolypin to implement land reform, allowing peasants to leave the community. The essence of the reform was to resolve the land issue, but not through the confiscation of land from the landowners, as the peasants demanded, but through the redistribution of the land of the peasants themselves.

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Zemstvo and city reforms. The principle of 1864. zemstvo reform consisted of election and classlessness. In the provinces and districts of Central Russia and part of Ukraine zemstvos were established as local government bodies. Elections to zemstvo assemblies were carried out on the basis of property, age, education and a number of other qualifications. Women and employees were deprived of the right to participate in elections. This gave an advantage to the wealthiest segments of the population. The meetings elected zemstvo councils. Zemstvos were in charge affairs of local importance, promoted entrepreneurship, education, healthcare - carried out work for which the state did not have the funds.

Conducted in 1870 urban reform in character she was close to the zemstvo. In large cities city ​​councils were established on the basis of all-estate elections. However, elections were held on a licensing basis, and, for example, in Moscow only 4% of the adult population participated in them. The city councils and the mayor decided internal self-government issues, education and health care. For control for zemstvo and city activities it was created presence on city affairs.

Judicial reform. New judicial statutes were approved on November 20, 1864. The judicial power was separated from the executive and legislative. A classless and public court was introduced, and the principle of irremovability of judges was established. Two types of court were introduced - general (crown) and magistrate. The general court was in charge of criminal cases. The trial became open, although in a number of cases cases were heard behind closed doors. An adversarial court was established, the positions of investigators were introduced, and the legal profession was established. The question of the defendant’s guilt was decided by 12 jurors. The most important principle of the reform was the recognition of the equality of all subjects of the empire before the law.

For the analysis of civil cases it was introduced Institute of Magistrates. Appeal the authority for the courts were court cases You. The position was introduced notary. Since 1872, major political cases were considered in Special presence of the governing Senate, which simultaneously became the highest court of cassation.

Military reform. After his appointment in 1861, D.A. Milyutin, Minister of War, begins the reorganization of the management of the armed forces. In 1864, 15 military districts were formed, subordinate directly to the Minister of War. In 1867, a military judicial charter was adopted. In 1874, after a long discussion, the tsar approved the Charter on universal military service. A flexible recruitment system was introduced. Recruitment sets were cancelled, and the entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. The service life was reduced in the army to 6 years, in the navy to 7 years. Clergymen, members of a number of religious sects, the peoples of Kazakhstan and Central Asia, as well as some peoples of the Caucasus and the Far North were not subject to conscription into the army. The only son, the only breadwinner in the family, was exempt from service. In peacetime, the need for soldiers was significantly less than the number of conscripts, so everyone fit for service, with the exception of those who received benefits, drew lots. For those who graduated from primary school, service was reduced to 3 years, for those who graduated from high school - to 1.5 years, and from university or institute - to 6 months.

Financial reform. In 1860 there was State Bank established, happened abolition of the tax-farm 2 system, which was replaced by excise taxes 3(1863). Since 1862 The only responsible manager of budget revenues and expenses was the Minister of Finance; the budget became public. Was done attempt at monetary reform(free exchange of credit notes for gold and silver at the established rate).

Educational reforms. “Regulations on primary public schools” dated June 14, 1864 eliminated the state-church monopoly on education. Now both public institutions and private ones were allowed to open and maintain primary schools persons under control by district and provincial school councils and inspectors. The charter of the secondary school introduced the principle of equality of all classes and religions y, but entered tuition fees.

Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real new In classical gymnasiums, mainly humanities were taught, in real ones - natural subjects. After the resignation of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnin (in 1861 D.A. Tolstoy was appointed instead) was accepted new gymnasium regulations, retaining only classical gymnasiums, real gymnasiums were replaced by real schools. Along with male secondary education a system of women's gymnasiums appeared.

University Us tav (1863) provided universities had broad autonomy, elections of rectors and professors were introduced. Management of the educational institution was transferred to the Council of the Prof. Essor, to whom the students were subordinate. Were universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk, higher courses for women in St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Moscow, Kazan.

As a result of the publication of a number of laws in Russia there was a coherent education system was created, which included primary, secondary and higher educational institutions.

Censorship reform. In May 1862 censorship reform began, were introduced "temporary rules”, which in 1865 were replaced by a new censorship charter. According to the new charter, preliminary censorship was abolished for books of 10 or more printed pages (240 pages); editors and publishers could only be held accountable in court. With special permissions and upon payment of a deposit of several thousand rubles, periodicals were also exempt from censorship, but they could be suspended administratively. Only government and scientific publications, as well as literature translated from a foreign language, could be published without censorship.

The preparation and implementation of reforms were an important factor in the socio-economic development of the country. Administratively, the reforms were quite well prepared, but public opinion did not always keep up with the ideas of the reformer tsar. The diversity and speed of transformations gave rise to a feeling of uncertainty and confusion in thoughts. People lost their bearings, organizations professing extremist, sectarian principles appeared.

For economy Post-reform Russia is characterized by rapid development commodity-money relations. Celebrated growth of sown areas and agricultural production, but agricultural productivity remained low. Harvests and food consumption (except bread) were 2-4 times lower than in Western Europe. At the same time in the 80s. compared to the 50s. The average annual grain harvest increased by 38%, and its export increased by 4.6 times.

The development of commodity-money relations led to property differentiation in the countryside, middle peasant farms went bankrupt, and the number of poor people grew. On the other side, strong kulak farms appeared, some of which used agricultural machines. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But completely unexpectedly for them in the country the traditionally hostile attitude towards trade has intensified That is, to all new forms of activity: to a kulak, a merchant, a buyer - to a successful entrepreneur.

In Russia large industry was created and developed as a state-owned. The government's main concern after the failures of the Crimean War was enterprises producing military equipment. Russia's military budget in general terms was inferior to that of England, France, and Germany, but in the Russian budget it had a greater weight. Particular attention was paid to development of heavy industry and transport. It was in these areas that the government directed funds, both Russian and foreign.

The growth of entrepreneurship was controlled by the state based on the issuance of special orders, That's why the big bourgeoisie was closely associated with the state. Fast the number of industrial workers increased, however, many workers retained economic and psychological ties to the village; they carried within them the charge of discontent of the poor who had lost their land and were forced to seek food in the city.

The reforms laid the foundation new credit system. For 1866-1875 was 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual credit societies and other financial institutions were created. Since 1866 they began to actively participate in their work largest European banks. As a result of government regulation, foreign loans and investments went mainly to railway construction. Railways ensured the expansion of the economic market across the vast expanses of Russia; they were also important for the rapid transfer of military units.

In the second half of the 19th century, the political situation in the country changed several times.

During the period of preparation of the reforms, from 1855 to 1861, the government retained the initiative of action and attracted all supporters of the reforms - from the highest bureaucracy to the democrats. Subsequently, difficulties in carrying out reforms aggravated the internal political situation in the country. The government’s struggle with opponents “from the left” became brutal: the suppression of peasant uprisings, the arrests of liberals, the defeat of the Polish uprising. The role of the III Security (gendarmerie) department has strengthened.

IN 1860s a radical movement entered the political arena - populists. The common intelligentsia, relying on revolutionary democratic ideas and nihilism DI. Pisareva, created theory of revolutionary populism. The populists believed in the possibility of achieving socialism, bypassing capitalism, through the liberation of the peasant community - the rural "world". "Rebel" M.A. Bakunin predicted a peasant revolution, the fuse of which was to be lit by the revolutionary intelligentsia. P.N. Tkachev was the theorist of a coup d'etat, after which the intelligentsia, having carried out the necessary transformations, would liberate the community. P.L. Lavrov substantiated the idea of ​​thoroughly preparing peasants for the revolutionary struggle. IN 1874 began a mass “going to the people”“, but the agitation of the populists failed to ignite the flame of the peasant uprising.

In 1876 it arose organization "Land and Freedom"", which in 1879 split into two groups.

Group " Black redistribution" headed by G.V. Plekhanov paid primary attention to propaganda;

« People's Will" headed by A.I. Zhelyabov, N.A. Morozov, S.L. Perovskaya in highlighted political struggle. The main means of struggle, according to the “People’s Will”, was individual terror, a regicide that was supposed to serve as a signal for a popular uprising. In 1879-1881. Narodnaya Volya held a series assassination attempts on Alexander II.

In a situation of acute political confrontation, the authorities took the path of self-defense. On February 12, 1880 it was created “The Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of State Order and Public Peace"led by M.P. Loris-Melikov. Having received unlimited rights, Loris-Melikov achieved a suspension of the terrorist activities of the revolutionaries and some stabilization of the situation. In April 1880 the commission was liquidated; Loris-Melikov was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs and began to prepare the completion of the “great work of state reforms”. The development of draft laws for the final reform laws was entrusted to the “people” - temporary preparatory commissions with broad representation of zemstvos and cities.

On February 5, 1881, the presented bill was approved by Emperor Alexander II. " Loris-Melikov Constitution"provided for the election of "representatives from public institutions..." to the highest bodies of state power. In the morning March 1, 1881 The emperor appointed a meeting of the Council of Ministers to approve the bill; literally in a few hours Alexander II was killed members of the People's Will organization.

New Emperor Alexander III On March 8, 1881, he held a meeting of the Council of Ministers to discuss the Loris-Melikov project. At the meeting, the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod, K.P., sharply criticized the “constitution.” Pobedonostsev and the head of the State Council S.G. Stroganov. Loris-Melikov's resignation soon followed.

IN May 1883 Alexander III proclaimed a course called in historical materialist literature “ counter-reforms», and in the liberal-historical - “adjustment of reforms”. He expressed himself as follows.

In 1889, to strengthen supervision over the peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced. They were appointed from local noble landowners. Clerks and small traders, as well as other low-income strata of the city, lost their right to vote. Judicial reform has undergone changes. In the new regulations on zemstvos of 1890, class and noble representation was strengthened. In 1882-1884. Many publications were closed, and the autonomy of universities was abolished. Primary schools were transferred to the church department - the Synod.

These events showed the idea of ​​"official nationality""from the time of Nicholas I - slogan " Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Spirit of Humility"was in tune with the slogans of a bygone era. New official ideologists K.P. Pobedonostsev (Chief Prosecutor of the Synod), M.N. Katkov (editor of the Moskovskie Vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (publisher of the newspaper Citizen) omitted the word “people” from the old formula “Orthodoxy, autocracy and the people” as “dangerous”; They preached the humility of his spirit before the autocracy and the church. In practice, the new policy resulted in an attempt to strengthen the state by relying on the noble class traditionally loyal to the throne. Administrative measures were reinforced economic support for landowners.

Peasant reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Liberal reforms 60-70s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Establishment of zemstvos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Self-government in cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Judicial reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Military reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Education reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....10

Church in the period of reforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .13

Peasant reform .

Russia on the eve of the abolition of serfdom . The defeat in the Crimean War testified to Russia's serious military-technical lag behind the leading European states. There was a threat of the country sliding into the category of minor powers. The authorities could not allow this. Along with the defeat came the understanding that the main reason for Russia's economic backwardness was serfdom.

The enormous costs of the war seriously undermined the monetary system of the state. Recruitment, seizures of livestock and fodder, and increased duties ruined the population. And although the peasants did not respond to the hardships of the war with mass uprisings, they were in a state of tense anticipation of the tsar's decision to abolish serfdom.

In April 1854, a decree was issued on the formation of a reserve rowing flotilla (“sea militia”). Serfs could also enroll in it with the consent of the landowner and with a written obligation to return to the owner. The decree limited the area where the flotilla was formed to four provinces. However, he shook up almost all of peasant Russia. Rumors spread in the villages that the emperor was calling for volunteers for military service and for this he would forever free them from serfdom. Unauthorized enrollment in the militia resulted in a mass flight of peasants from the landowners. This phenomenon took on an even broader character in connection with the manifesto of January 29, 1855 on the recruitment of warriors into the land militia, covering dozens of provinces.

The atmosphere in the “enlightened” society also changed. According to the figurative expression of the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky, Sevastopol hit stagnant minds. “Now the question of the emancipation of serfs is on everyone’s lips,” wrote the historian K. D. Kavelin, “they talk about it loudly, even those in whom it was previously impossible to hint at the fallacy of serfdom without causing nervous attacks are thinking about it.” Even the tsar's relatives - his aunt, Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, and his younger brother Konstantin - spoke in favor of reforms.

Preparation of peasant reform . For the first time, Alexander II officially announced the need to abolish serfdom on March 30, 1856 to representatives of the Moscow nobility. At the same time, he, knowing the mood of the majority of landowners, emphasized that it is much better if this happens from above than to wait for it to happen from below.

On January 3, 1857, Alexander II formed the Secret Committee to discuss the issue of abolition of serfdom. However, many of its members, former Nikolaev dignitaries, were ardent opponents of the liberation of the peasants. They hindered the work of the committee in every possible way. And then the emperor decided to take more effective measures. At the end of October 1857, Vilna Governor-General V.N. Nazimov, who in his youth was Alexander’s personal adjutant, arrived in St. Petersburg. He brought the emperor an appeal from the nobles of the Vilna, Kovno and Grodno provinces. They asked permission to discuss the issue of freeing the peasants without giving them land. Alexander took advantage of this request and sent a rescript to Nazimov on November 20, 1857 on the establishment of provincial committees from among the landowners to prepare projects for peasant reform. On December 5, 1857, St. Petersburg Governor-General P. I. Ignatiev received a similar document. Soon the text of the rescript sent to Nazimov appeared in the official press. Thus, the preparation of the peasant reform became public.

During 1858, “committees for improving the life of landowner peasants” were established in 46 provinces (officials were afraid to include the word “liberation” in official documents). In February 1858, the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee. Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich became its chairman. In March 1859, Editorial Commissions were established under the Main Committee. Their members were engaged in reviewing materials received from the provinces and drawing up, on their basis, a general draft law on the emancipation of peasants. General Ya. I. Rostovtsev, who enjoyed the special trust of the emperor, was appointed chairman of the commissions. He attracted supporters of reforms from among liberal officials and landowners to his work - N. A. Milyutin, Yu. F. Samarin, V. A. Cherkassky, Y. A. Solovyov, P. P. Semenov, called by contemporaries “red bureaucrats” " They advocated the liberation of peasants with land allotments for ransom and their transformation into small landowners, while landownership was preserved. These ideas were radically different from those expressed by the nobles in provincial committees. They believed that even if the peasants were to be liberated, it would be without land. In October 1860, the editorial commissions completed their work. The final preparation of the reform documents was transferred to the Main Committee, then they were approved by the State Council.

The main provisions of the peasant reform. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed the manifesto “On granting serfs the rights of free rural inhabitants and on the organization of their life,” as well as “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom.” According to these documents, peasants who previously belonged to landowners were declared legally free and received general civil rights. Upon release, they were allocated land, but in a limited amount and for a ransom on special conditions. The land allotment that the landowner provided to the peasant could not be higher than the norm established by law. Its size ranged from 3 to 12 dessiatines in different parts of the empire. If at the time of liberation there was more land in peasant use, then the landowner had the right to cut off the surplus, while land of better quality was taken from the peasants. According to the reform, peasants had to buy land from landowners. They could get it for free, but only a quarter of the allotment determined by law. Before the redemption of their land plots, peasants found themselves in the position of temporarily liable. They had to pay quitrent or serve corvee in favor of the landowners.

The size of allotments, quitrents and corvée was to be determined by an agreement between the landowner and the peasants - Charter Charters. The temporary condition could last for 9 years. At this time, the peasant could not give up his allotment.

The amount of the ransom was determined in such a way that the landowner did not lose the money that he had previously received in the form of rent. The peasant had to immediately pay him 20-25% of the cost of the allotment. To enable the landowner to receive the redemption amount in a lump sum, the government paid him the remaining 75-80%. The peasant had to repay this debt to the state for 49 years with an accrual of 6% per annum. At the same time, settlements were carried out not with each individual, but with the peasant community. Thus, the land was not the personal property of the peasant, but the property of the community.

World mediators, as well as provincial presences for peasant affairs consisting of the governor, government official, prosecutor and representatives of local landowners, were supposed to monitor the implementation of the reform on the ground.

The reform of 1861 abolished serfdom. The peasants became free people. However, the reform preserved the remnants of serfdom in the village, primarily landownership. In addition, the peasants did not receive full ownership of the land, which means they did not have the opportunity to rebuild their economy on a capitalist basis.

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Establishment of zemstvos . After the abolition of serfdom, a number of other transformations were required. By the beginning of the 60s. the previous local management showed its complete failure. The activities of the officials appointed in the capital in charge of the provinces and districts, and the detachment of the population from making any decisions, brought economic life, health care, and education to extreme disorder. The abolition of serfdom made it possible to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems. At the same time, when establishing new governing bodies, the government could not help but take into account the sentiments of the nobles, many of whom were dissatisfied with the abolition of serfdom.

On January 1, 1864, an imperial decree introduced the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions,” which provided for the creation of elected zemstvos in districts and provinces. Only men enjoyed the right to vote in the elections of these bodies. Voters were divided into three curia (categories): landowners, urban voters and elected from peasant societies. Owners of at least 200 dessiatines of land or other real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles, as well as owners of industrial and commercial enterprises generating income of at least 6 thousand rubles per year could be voters in the landowner curia. Small landowners, uniting, nominated only authorized representatives for elections.

The voters of the city curia were merchants, owners of enterprises or trading establishments with an annual turnover of at least six thousand rubles, as well as owners of real estate worth from 600 rubles (in small towns) to 3.6 thousand rubles (in large cities).

Elections for the peasant curia were multi-stage: first, village assemblies elected representatives to volost assemblies. At volost assemblies, electors were first elected, who then nominated representatives to county government bodies. Representatives from peasants to provincial self-government bodies were elected at district assemblies.

Zemstvo institutions were divided into administrative and executive. The administrative bodies - zemstvo assemblies - consisted of members of all classes. In both districts and provinces, councilors were elected for a term of three years. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils, which also worked for three years. The range of issues that were resolved by zemstvo institutions was limited to local affairs: the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The governor monitored the legality of their activities. The material basis for the existence of zemstvos was a special tax that was levied on real estate: land, houses, factories and commercial establishments.

The most energetic, democratically minded intelligentsia grouped around the zemstvos. The new self-government bodies raised the level of education and public health, improved the road network and expanded agronomic assistance to peasants on a scale that state power was unable to achieve. Despite the fact that representatives of the nobility predominated in the zemstvos, their activities were aimed at improving the situation of the broad masses.

Zemstvo reform was not carried out in the Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, in Siberia, in Central Asia - where noble land ownership was absent or insignificant. Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine, and the Caucasus also did not receive local government bodies, since there were few Russians among the landowners there.

Self-government in cities. In 1870, following the example of the zemstvo, an urban reform was carried out. She introduced all-class self-government bodies - city councils elected for four years. Voters of the Duma elected permanent executive bodies - city councils - for the same term, as well as the city mayor, who was the head of both the Duma and the council.

The right to elect members of the new governing bodies was given to men who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of taxes paid to the city, were divided into three curiae. The first was a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers, contributing another 1/3 of city taxes. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. Moreover, each of them elected an equal number of members to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of large property owners in it.

The activities of city government were controlled by the state. The mayor was approved by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. These same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the city council. To control the activities of city self-government, a special body was created in each province - the provincial presence for city affairs.

City self-government bodies appeared in 1870, first in 509 Russian cities. In 1874, the reform was introduced in the cities of Transcaucasia, in 1875 - in Lithuania, Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine, in 1877 - in the Baltic states. It did not apply to the cities of Central Asia, Poland and Finland. Despite all its limitations, the urban reform of the emancipation of Russian society, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues. This served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform . The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was the judicial reform carried out in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the court"; independence of judges; adversarial nature of prosecution and defense; irremovability of judges and investigators; election of some judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - magistrates and general. Magistrates' courts heard minor criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice individually. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city dumas. A high educational and property qualification was established for judges. At the same time, they received quite high wages - from 2200 to 9 thousand rubles per year.

The general court system included district courts and judicial chambers. Members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered criminal and complex civil cases. Criminal cases were tried with the participation of twelve jurors. The juror could be a Russian citizen aged 25 to 70 with an impeccable reputation, living in the area for at least two years and owning real estate worth at least 2 thousand rubles. The jury lists were approved by the governor. Appeals against the district court's decision were filed with the trial chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict was allowed. The Trial Chamber also considered cases of official misconduct. Such cases were equated to state crimes and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate. The reform established the transparency of trials. They took place openly, in the presence of the public; newspapers published reports on trials of public interest. The adversarial nature of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of a prosecutor - a representative of the prosecution and a lawyer defending the interests of the accused. An extraordinary interest in advocacy has arisen in Russian society. Outstanding lawyers F.N. Plevako, A.I. Urusov, V.D. Spasovich, K.K. Arsenyev became famous in this field, laying the foundations of the Russian school of lawyer-speakers. The new judicial system retained a number of class remnants. These included volost courts for peasants, special courts for the clergy, military and high officials. In some national regions, the implementation of judicial reform has been delayed for decades. In the so-called Western Territory (Vilna, Vitebsk, Volyn, Grodno, Kiev, Kovno, Minsk, Mogilev and Podolsk provinces) it began only in 1872 with the creation of magistrates' courts. Justices of the peace were not elected, but appointed for three years. District courts began to be created only in 1877. At the same time, Catholics were prohibited from holding judicial positions. In the Baltic states, the reform began to be implemented only in 1889.

Only at the end of the 19th century. judicial reform was carried out in the Arkhangelsk province and Siberia (in 1896), as well as in Central Asia and Kazakhstan (in 1898). Here, too, justices of the peace were appointed, who simultaneously served as investigators; jury trials were not introduced.

Military reforms. Liberal reforms in society, the government's desire to overcome backwardness in the military field, and also to reduce military spending necessitated radical reforms in the army. They were carried out under the leadership of Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. In 1863-1864. reform of military educational institutions began. General education was separated from special education: future officers received general education in military gymnasiums, and professional training in military schools. Mostly children of nobles studied in these educational institutions. For people who did not have a secondary education, cadet schools were created, where representatives of all classes were accepted. In 1868, military gymnasiums were created to replenish the cadet schools.

In 1867 the Military Law Academy was opened, in 1877 the Naval Academy. Instead of conscription, all-class military service was introduced. According to the charter approved on January 1, 1874, persons of all classes from the age of 20 (later from the age of 21) were subject to conscription. The total service life for the ground forces was set at 15 years, of which 6 years were active service, 9 years were in reserve. In the navy - 10 years: 7 - active, 3 - in reserve. For persons who received an education, the period of active service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from primary schools) to 6 months (for those who received higher education).

Only sons and the only breadwinners of the family were exempted from service, as well as those conscripts whose older brother was serving or had already served his term of active service. Those exempt from conscription were enlisted in the militia, which was formed only during the war. Not subject to conscription were clergy of all faiths, representatives of some religious sects and organizations, peoples of the North, Central Asia, and some residents of the Caucasus and Siberia. In the army, corporal punishment was abolished, caning was reserved only for penal prisoners), food was improved, barracks were refurbished, and literacy training for soldiers was introduced. The army and navy were being rearmed: smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, the replacement of cast iron and bronze guns with steel ones began; Rapid-firing rifles by the American inventor Berdan were adopted. The combat training system has changed. A number of new regulations, instructions, and training manuals were published, which set the task of teaching soldiers only what was necessary in war, significantly reducing the time for combat training.

As a result of the reforms, Russia received a massive army that met the requirements of the time. The combat effectiveness of the troops has increased significantly. The transition to universal military service was a serious blow to the class organization of society.

Reforms in the field of education. The education system has also undergone significant restructuring. In June 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were approved, according to which such educational institutions could be opened by public institutions and private individuals. This led to the creation of primary schools of various types - state, zemstvo, parish, Sunday, etc. The duration of education in them did not exceed, as a rule, three years.

Since November 1864, gymnasiums have become the main type of educational institution. They were divided into classic and real. In the classical ones, a large place was given to ancient languages ​​- Latin and Greek. The period of study in them was initially seven years, and since 1871 - eight years. Graduates of classical gymnasiums had the opportunity to enter universities. Six-year real gymnasiums were designed to prepare “for employment in various branches of industry and trade.”

The main attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities was closed to graduates of real gymnasiums; they continued their studies at technical institutes. The beginning of women's secondary education was laid - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children “of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion,” however, high tuition fees were set. In June 1864, a new charter for universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, which elected the rector and deans, approved educational plans, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Higher education for women began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as auditors.

The Orthodox Church during the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior state officials. Social forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trustees arose, consisting of parishioners who not only focused on the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities was closed to graduates of real gymnasiums; they continued their studies at technical institutes.

The beginning of women's secondary education was laid - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children “of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion,” however, high tuition fees were set.

In June 1864, a new charter for universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, which elected the rector and deans, approved educational plans, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Higher education for women began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as auditors.

The Orthodox Church during the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior state officials. Social forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trustees arose, consisting of parishioners who not only managed the affairs of the parish, but were also supposed to help improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1869-79 the incomes of parish priests increased significantly due to the abolition of small parishes and the establishment of an annual salary, which ranged from 240 to 400 rubles. Old-age pensions were introduced for clergy.

The liberal spirit of reforms carried out in the field of education also affected church educational institutions. In 1863, graduates of theological seminaries received the right to enter universities. In 1864, children of the clergy were allowed to enter gymnasiums, and in 1866 - into military schools. In 1867, the Synod decided to abolish the heredity of parishes and the right of admission to seminaries for all Orthodox Christians without exception. These measures destroyed class barriers and contributed to the democratic renewal of the clergy. At the same time, they led to the departure from this environment of many young, gifted people who joined the ranks of the intelligentsia. Under Alexander II, the Old Believers were legally recognized: they were allowed to register their marriages and baptisms in civil institutions; they could now hold some public positions and freely travel abroad. At the same time, in all official documents, adherents of the Old Believers were still called schismatics, and they were prohibited from holding public office.

Conclusion: During the reign of Alexander II, liberal reforms were carried out in Russia, affecting all aspects of public life. Thanks to the reforms, significant sections of the population acquired initial skills in management and public work. The reforms laid down traditions, albeit very timid ones, of civil society and the rule of law. At the same time, they retained the class advantages of the nobles, and also had restrictions for the national regions of the country, where the free popular will determines not only the law, but also the personality of the rulers; in such a country, political murder as a means of struggle is a manifestation of the same spirit of despotism, the destruction of which in We set Russia as our task. The despotism of the individual and the despotism of the party are equally reprehensible, and violence is justified only when it is directed against violence." Comment on this document.

The liberation of the peasants in 1861 and the subsequent reforms of the 60-70s became a turning point in Russian history. This period was called by liberal figures the era of “great reforms.” Their consequence was the creation of the necessary conditions for the development of capitalism in Russia, which allowed it to follow the pan-European path.

The rate of economic development in the country increased sharply, and the transition to a market economy began. Under the influence of these processes, new layers of the population were formed - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Peasant and landowner farms were increasingly drawn into commodity-money relations.

The emergence of zemstvos, city self-government, and democratic changes in the judicial and educational systems testified to Russia's steady, although not so rapid, movement towards the foundations of civil society and the rule of law.

However, almost all reforms were inconsistent and unfinished. They maintained the class advantages of the nobility and state control over society. On the national outskirts, reforms were implemented incompletely. The principle of the autocratic power of the monarch remained unchanged.

The foreign policy of the government of Alexander II in almost all main directions was active. Through diplomatic and military means, the Russian state managed to solve the foreign policy tasks facing it and restore its position as a great power. The borders of the empire expanded due to the Central Asian territories.

The era of “great reforms” was a time when social movements transformed into a force capable of influencing or resisting power. Fluctuations in government policy and the inconsistency of reforms led to an increase in radicalism in the country. Revolutionary organizations took the path of terror, trying to rouse the peasants to revolution by killing the tsar and senior officials.

An important place in the history of Russia is occupied by the reforms carried out during the reign of Alexander II. Having ascended the throne in 1855, he inherited from the previous reign a country mired in the Crimean War, a collapsed economy and corruption that was corroding all branches of government. To get out of such a difficult situation, the most decisive measures were required, which were the reforms he carried out.

Reasons that prompted the abolition of serfdom

The main reason for the peasant reform of Alexander II was the need to take urgent measures caused by the crisis of the serf system that had matured by that time and the increasing frequency of peasant unrest. The mass protests took on particular urgency after the end of the Crimean War (1853 ─ 1856), since the peasants, who responded to the government’s call to create militias, expected to receive freedom for this and were deceived in their expectations.

The following data are very indicative: if in 1856 66 peasant revolts were registered throughout the country, then after 3 years their number increased to 797. In addition, two more aspects played a significant role in realizing the need for such a reform, which could not but be taken care of Russian emperor, ─ this is state prestige, as well as the moral side of the problem.

Stages of peasant liberation

The date of the abolition of serfdom is considered to be February 19, 1861, that is, the day the king signed his famous Manifesto. A facsimile of it is given below. However, this great reform of Alexander II was carried out in 3 stages. In the year the Manifesto was published, only the so-called privately owned peasants, that is, those who belonged to the nobles, received freedom. They made up about 55% of all serfs. The remaining 45% of the forced people were owned by the king (appanage peasants) and the state. They were freed from serfdom in 1863 and 1866.

Document developed by the Secret Committee

The liberation of the peasants, like all liberal reforms of the 60s - 70s of the 19th century, was the reason for heated discussions among representatives of broad sections of Russian society. They took on particular urgency among the members of the Secret Committee created in 1857, whose responsibilities included working out all the details of the future document. Its meetings became an arena of controversy in which the opinions of supporters of progress and inveterate conservative serf-owners collided.

The result of the work of this committee, as well as a number of organizational measures, was a document on the basis of which serfdom in Russia was abolished forever, and the peasants were not only freed from legal dependence in relation to their former owners, but also received from them the land plots that were destined for them redeem.

New masters of the earth

According to the regulations adopted at that time, appropriate agreements had to be concluded between peasants and landowners on the purchase by former serfs of their allotted plots. Before the signing of this document, the peasants were considered “temporarily obligated,” that is, continuing to pay part of the previous dues, since, having emerged from personal dependence, they did not stop using the master’s land. To repay the land debt to the landowners, the peasants received a loan from the treasury with an installment plan for 49 years.

It should be noted that as a result of this most important of all liberal reforms of the 60s - 70s of the 19th century, peasants not only gained freedom from serfdom, but also became the owners of almost 50% of all arable land, which was then the main productive capital in Russia. All this gave a rapid impetus to improve the level of the national economy.

Public finance reform

The liberal reforms of Alexander II also affected the financial system of the state. The need to introduce a number of changes to it was dictated by the transition of the state economy to a capitalist mode. Financial reform was carried out with the direct participation of the Minister of Finance, Count M. H. Reiter.

As part of the fight against corruption, a strict procedure was established in all departments for recording the receipt and expenditure of funds, the data of which was published and brought to the attention of the general public. Control over all government expenditures was entrusted to the Ministry of Finance, the head of which then reported to the sovereign. An important aspect of the reform was also innovations in the taxation system and the abolition of “wine tax farming”, which granted the right to sell alcoholic beverages only to a narrow circle of people and thereby reduced tax revenues to the treasury.

Reform in the field of public education

An important aspect of the liberal reforms of the 60s - 70s of the 19th century were the innovations introduced in the system of higher and secondary education. Thus, in 1863, the university charter was approved, which granted the broadest rights to the professorial corporation and protected it from the arbitrariness of officials.

Four years later, a classical education system was introduced in the country's humanitarian gymnasiums, and technical gymnasiums were transformed into real schools. In addition, a significant step was taken towards the development of women's education. The lower strata of the population were not forgotten either. In addition to the previously existing parochial schools, thousands of elementary secular schools appeared during the reign of Alexander II.

Zemstvo reform

The Russian emperor also paid considerable attention to issues of local self-government. According to the law he adopted, all landowners and private entrepreneurs whose property met the established qualifications, as well as peasant communities, were given the right to elect their representatives to district zemstvo assemblies for a period of 3 years.

Since the deputies, or “vowels” as they were called, met only periodically, a district zemstvo government was created for permanent work, the members of which were especially trusted persons from among the deputies. Zemstvos, established not only within counties, but also within entire provinces, dealt with issues of public education, food, health care, veterinary medicine and road maintenance.

In November 1864, a new Judicial Charter was published, which radically changed the order of all legal proceedings. In contrast to the norms established under Catherine II, when sessions took place behind closed doors in the absence of not only spectators, but even plaintiffs and defendants, during the time of Alexander II the court became public.

The verdict rendered by jurors appointed from ordinary citizens was of decisive importance in determining the guilt of the defendants. In addition, the adversarial process between a lawyer and a prosecutor has become an important element of legal proceedings. The protection of judges from possible pressure was ensured by their administrative independence and irremovability.

It began in 1857 with the abolition of military settlements established by Alexander I in 1810. The system in which military service was combined with productive labor, mainly in agriculture, played a positive role at a certain stage, but by the middle of the century it had completely outlived its usefulness.

In addition, in 1874, a law was issued, developed by a commission under the leadership of Minister of War D. Milyutin, which abolished the previous recruitment drives and replaced them with annual conscription of young men who had reached the age of 21 into the army. However, even from their number, not all of them ended up in the army, but only the number that was needed by the state at the moment. Those taken into service spent 6 years in the army and another 9 were in the reserves.

The military reform also provided for an extensive list of benefits for conscripts, which extended to persons of various categories. They included, in particular, the only sons of their parents or the only grandchildren of their grandparents, breadwinners of families, as well as those who, in the absence of parents, had dependent young brothers or sisters, and many other young people.

City government reform

The story about the liberal reforms of the 60s ─ 70s of the 19th century would be incomplete without mentioning that, according to the law issued in 1870, the order of local self-government established in counties and provinces also extended to the cities of the Russian Empire. Their residents, who paid taxes on the land, trades or trades they owned, received the right to elect members to the city duma, which exercised control over the management of the city economy.

In turn, the Duma elected members of a permanent body, which was the city government and its leader - the mayor. It is important to note that the local administration did not have the opportunity to influence the decisions of the city duma, since it reported directly to the senate.

Results of reform

All those measures of state transformation discussed in the article made it possible to solve a number of pressing social and economic problems by that time. They created the necessary conditions for the development of a capitalist economy in Russia and its transformation into a rule of law state.

Unfortunately, during his lifetime the great reformer did not receive the gratitude of his compatriots. Retrogrades condemned him for being too liberal, and liberals reproached him for not being radical enough. Revolutionaries and terrorists of all stripes staged a real hunt for him, organizing 6 assassination attempts. As a result, on March 1 (13), 1881, Alexander II was killed by a bomb thrown at his carriage by Narodnaya Volya member Ignatius Grinevitsky.

According to researchers, some of his reforms were not completed both due to objective reasons and as a result of the indecisiveness of the emperor himself. When Alexander III came to power in 1881, the counter-reforms he launched significantly slowed down the progress that had taken place during the previous reign.