Holy Roman Empire. The occupation of the "territory of Russia. Holy Roman Empire What We Learned

In this lesson we will talk about such a state as the Holy Roman Empire. This empire had a huge impact on the politics of European countries and was one of the great empires of the Middle Ages. This empire had colossal territories, but over time it could not hold them, and a slow decline began. The Holy Roman Emperors were in constant conflict with the Roman Catholic Church. You will learn more about all this by studying this lesson.

The quasi-state nature of this formation is evident from the fact that the Holy Roman Empire included 4 kingdoms at once: Germany, Italy, Burgundy and the Czech Republic. It is generally accepted that during the Middle Ages, the Holy Roman Empire included at least 300 state entities, most of which were located on the territory of modern Germany.

The imperial power of the Holy Roman Empire was very different from the power of the rulers of other states. The emperor did not receive power by inheritance, as happened in other monarchies, but he elected to the throne by electors or electoral princes. elector- this is the ruler of one of the territories of medieval Germany, who had the right to participate in the election of the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The rulers of Bohemia, the Rhinelands, Saxony and Brandenburg, as well as the archbishops of Cologne, Mainz and Trier took part in the process of choosing the emperor.

The Holy Roman Empire positioned itself as the successor not only to the Roman Empire, which ceased to exist in 476, but also to the power of Charlemagne. Charlemagne in 800 was officially crowned emperor in Rome. Even after his state collapsed, and the Carolingian dynasty ended, the Holy Roman Empire retained its claims to pan-European rule. Since 919, in power in Germany was Saxon dynasty. The Saxon duke (Fig. 2) was elected German king in 919. He retained his power until 936. It was not yet the moment of the creation of the Holy Roman Empire, but to a large extent it was Heinrich the Fowler that Germany owed the fact that unification processes began in this region.

Rice. 2. Heinrich Ptitselov ()

The unifier of the country and the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was OttoI(936 - 973). He created the state in the process of opposing the numerous feudal lords of different parts of Germany. The dukes prevented him and his descendants from uniting the country. In its unification policy OttoIleaned on the church. This allowed him to quickly consolidate the territories under his control, but this gave rise to numerous problems that would arise between the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire and the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church for almost the entire period of the existence of the Holy Roman Empire.

Otto I decided to strengthen his power thanks to a campaign in Italy in 951. He He was crowned in Pavia with the iron crown of the Lombards (Fig.3) . This crown was considered a symbol of the succession between the Roman Empire and later rulers. It was such a coronation that served as one of the main conditions for the fact that the power of Otto I and the state headed by him extended to such significant territories.

Rice. 3. Crown of the Lombards ()

Already under Otto I, conflicts began between the secular nobility and the aristocracy of the Roman Catholic Church. When Otto I took Rome in 962, Pope John XII crowned him with the imperial crown. Exactly 962 is considered the date of the creation of the Holy Roman Empire (Fig. 4). But between John XII and Otto I a serious conflict arose and the Pope was deposed. Starting from that moment and throughout the 11th century, an active struggle for power began to be waged between the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire and the popes.

Rice. 4. Holy Roman Empire, X century ()

Otto I and his descendants began to rely on the petty nobility. The big nobility posed a serious threat to the emperors, they were ready to interpret any difficult situation in their favor, try to overthrow the power and the single German ruler. The Roman Catholic Church in this case was not on the side of the emperor, believing that it was the emperors who had a serious negative impact on the position of the church on many issues. This struggle went on for a long time and went on with varying success. Only in 1059, when Franconian dynasty The popes were able to get out of imperial control. If earlier the emperor had the opportunity to actively influence the process of papal elections, then, starting from 1059, the Pope of Rome was officially elected by the college of cardinals. The Pope could frankly declare to secular people that since they did not choose him, he was not at all obliged to carry out their policy.

The fact that the Pope managed to change the order of the election of the Roman pontiff was due to the fact that the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire at that time was HenryIV who is not yet 9 years old. The child could not resist the Pope in any way, but when he grew up, he tried to change the situation in his favor. In 1075, a congress of German bishops was held in the city of Worms, which decided to depose Pope Gregory of Rome. VII. Without a doubt, this decision was dictated by the Holy Roman Emperor.

After the troops of Henry IV surrounded Rome, the pope called for the help of the Normans, who at that time had their own state in southern Italy. But even the help of the Normans did not save the Pope. Gregory VII was forced to first take refuge in the castle of the Holy Angel, and then flee the city.

The conflict between the Roman Catholic Church and the German emperors continued further. Even after the death of Gregory VII, numerous similar situations arose. Some changes only happened during the emperor's reign HenryV, who was in power from 1106 to 1125. He managed to conclude an agreement with the Pope - Paschal II the "poor church" treaty. According to this agreement, the church was not supposed to acquire wealth, formally, the relationship between the emperor and the pope was settled. But this agreement aroused indignation on the part of the ideologues of the Roman Catholic Church. They believed that the Pope had done wrong and "robbed the church." Ultimately, the conflict faded a little only in 1122. Signed this year Concordat of Worms. The issue of investiture, that is, the procedure for the appointment of bishops of the Roman Catholic Church. The dispute between the emperors and the pope was that the emperors believed that they had the right to appoint bishops, while the popes could not accept the loss of their power. The Concordat of Worms was a half-hearted decision on both sides: the Pope of Rome gave the bishop his ring and staff, that is, he emphasized the succession of the bishops of the Roman Catholic Church, and the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire provided them with land, thus, property relations depended entirely on the emperor.

During the reign of the next imperial dynasty Staufenov The popes did not always come into open conflict with the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, but they often supported the enemies of the emperors. Well it can be traced on the board FriedrichIBarbarossa(1152 - 1190) (Fig. 5). In order to strengthen his power, this emperor undertook a series of campaigns in Italy. There he received not only a rebuff from the Italian cities, but also from the side of the Pope, who very actively supported the northern Italian cities. The result of all these conflicts is that Frederick Barbarossa was excommunicated. In order to regain the favor of the pope, and not lose his power, he was forced to take a humiliating step: on the porch of St. occasion during the solemn departure of the Pope from the Cathedral. This returned him to the Roman Catholic Church, but the humiliation was too great.

Rice. 5. Frederick I Barbarossa ()

AT 1180 an event occurred that predetermined the future disintegration of the Holy Roman Empire. A trial took place over one of the opponents of the emperor, and the decision of the court was that the emperor did not have the right to keep the lands that he seized from the rebel during his speech. As a result, the emperor lost the right to collect lands under his command. The Holy Roman Empire is very quickly turning into a patchwork state, and there was a danger that the inhabitants of these lands could announce that they were no longer subordinate to the emperor.

It bore fruit during the reign of the emperor FriedrichIIStaufen(1212 - 1250) (Fig. 6). He was forced to indulge his princes in everything. He renounced the traditional imperial rights to build fortresses, cities, and mint his own coin, if this was detrimental to the interests of the feudal rulers of different regions of Germany. On the one hand, this was supposed to weaken the state, and on the other, lead to the fact that the Pope renounced his claims to the right to influence the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. But that did not happen. The Pope still supported the cities that remained opponents of the German emperor, and Emperor Frederick II was excommunicated.

Rice. 6. Friedrich II Staufen ()

AT 1273 The most important event in the history of the Holy Roman Empire took place. Four of the seven electors (who elected the emperor) were elevated to imperial dignity Rudolf Habsburg. He led an active policy, he began to wage war with those electors who did not support him, and as a result he annexed quite large territories. For example, he annexed Austria, the territory of Carinthia, the territory of Krajina. As a result, not only Habsburg dynasty, but also those territories from which the possessions of the House of Habsburg will subsequently appear, a little later it will be Austrian Empire, and a little later - Austria-Hungary.

At the same time, the foundations for the formation of another European state were laid - Switzerland. The claims of the Habsburgs to power over the entire territory of the Holy Roman Empire caused discontent in many regions, but it was in Switzerland that the unification processes began as a result of this. AT 1291 In the same year, the three Swiss cantons of Schwyz, Uriah and Unterwalden announced a merger and joint actions against the administration of the Holy Roman Empire. After Zurich and Bern joined this union in the middle of the 14th century, that association arose, which we call Swiss Confederation.

The weakening of the Holy Roman Empire continued further. Attempts to stabilize the situation were made by the emperor CharlesIV(1347 - 1378) (Fig. 7), at the same time he occupied the throne of the King of Bohemia. He came up with the idea of ​​creating a legal monument that would allow the emperors to unite their efforts in order to consolidate the situation in the country. This legal monument is called "Gold Bull". On the one hand, the emperor gave his powers to princes and spiritual leaders, and on the other hand, now it was officially recorded, and the Golden Bull was designed to keep the situation that was in the Holy Roman Empire stable.

Rice. 7. King of the Czech Republic and Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV ()

Throughout the second half of the 14th and 15th centuries, centripetal tendencies in the Holy Roman Empire were not great. The growing German cities demanded additional powers for themselves, at which time Hanseatic League of Cities. The cities that were part of this union did not oppose the Roman emperor, but at the same time, the Holy Roman Empire was deprived of those economic levers that it had until that moment.

Conflicts with the popes continued and within the framework of these conflicts there were interdicts- Cases of excommunication. The Holy Roman Empire continued to exist no longer as a single state, but as a conglomerate of various state formations that were little connected with each other.

During the reign of the emperor FriedrichIII(1440 - 1493) (Fig. 8) The Holy Roman Empire was on the verge of collapse. She lost vast territories and was constantly in conflict with neighboring states that wanted to increase their lands at the expense of the decaying Holy Roman Empire. Historians believe that only the crisis in Burgundy and Hungary did not allow the Holy Roman Empire to end its existence back then, in the 15th century. The successors of Frederick III understood that a new additional factor was needed that would bind all German lands and serve to strengthen the Holy Roman Empire. At the very beginning of the 16th century, such a factor was Protestantism. This was the beginning of the Reformation, which played such a big role in the history of Europe in the 16th century.

Rice. 8. Frederick III ()

1. Tell us about the formation of the Holy Roman Empire and its first emperor, Otto I.
2. What was the conflict between the Holy Roman Emperors and the Catholic Church? What measures were taken towards the settlement of the conflict?
3. Tell us about the Holy Roman Empire during the reign of the Staufen.
4. Tell us about the gradual decline of the Holy Roman Empire. What do you think caused its decline?

1. Krugosvet.ru ().
2. My-edu.ru ().
3. Medievalmuseum.ru ().
4. Antiquehistory.ru ().
5. Plam.ru ().

1. Volobuev O.V. Ponomarev M.V., General history for grade 10, M .: Bustard, 2012.
2. Grössing Z. Maximilian I / Per. with him. E. B. Kargina. — M.: AST, 2005.
3. Klimov O.Yu. Zemlyanitsin V.A. Noskov V.V. Myasnikova V.S. General history for grade 10, M.: Ventana - Graf, 2013
4. Kolesnitsky, N. F. "Holy Roman Empire": claims and reality. — M.: Nauka, 1977.
5. Prokopiev, A. Yu. Germany in the era of religious schism: 1555-1648. - St. Petersburg, 2002.
6. Rapp F. The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. - St. Petersburg: Eurasia, 2009.
7. Höfer, M. Emperor Henry II. — M.: Transitkniga, 2006.

The Holy Roman Empire is a state that existed from 962 to 1806. Its history is very curious. The Holy Roman Empire was founded in 962. It was carried out by King Otto I. It was he who was the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The state lasted until 1806 and was a feudal-theocratic country with a complex hierarchy. The image below shows the state square around the beginning of the 17th century.

According to the idea of ​​its founder, the German king, the empire created by Charlemagne was to be revived. However, by the 7th century, the idea of ​​Christian unity, which had been present in the Roman state from the very beginning of its Christianization, that is, since the reign of Constantine the Great, who died in 337, was largely forgotten by the 7th century. However, the church, which was heavily influenced by Roman institutions and laws, did not forget the idea.

Idea of ​​St. Augustine

St. Augustine at one time undertook a critical development in his treatise entitled "On the City of God" pagan ideas about the eternal and universal monarchy. This doctrine was interpreted by medieval thinkers in a political aspect, more positively than its author himself. They were prompted to do so by comments on the Book of Daniel of the Church Fathers. According to them, the Roman Empire will be the last of the great powers, which will perish only with the coming of the Antichrist to the earth. Thus, the formation of the Holy Roman Empire came to symbolize the unity of Christians.

The history of the title

The term itself, denoting this state, appeared rather late. Immediately after Charles was crowned, he took advantage of the clumsy and lengthy title, which was soon abandoned. It contained the words "emperor, ruler of the Roman Empire."

All his successors called themselves Emperor Augustus (without territorial specification). Over time, as expected, the former Roman Empire will enter the power, and then the whole world. Therefore, Otto II is sometimes referred to as Emperor Augustus of the Romans. And then, from the time of Otto III, this title is already indispensable.

History of the name of the state

The very phrase "Roman Empire" began to be used as the name of the state from the middle of the 10th century, and was finally fixed in 1034. It should not be forgotten that the Byzantine emperors also considered themselves the successors of the Roman Empire, so the appropriation of this name by the German kings led to some diplomatic complications.

There is a definition of "Sacred" in the documents of Frederick I Barbarossa from 1157. In sources from 1254, the full designation ("Holy Roman Empire") takes root. We find the same name in German in the documents of Charles IV, the words "German nation" are added to it from 1442, at first in order to distinguish the German lands from the Roman Empire.

In the decree of Frederick III, issued in 1486, this mention is found of "universal peace", and since 1512 the final form is approved - "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation". It lasted until 1806, until its collapse. The approval of this form occurred when Maximilian, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, reigned (reigned from 1508 to 1519).

Carolingian emperors

From the Carolingian, earlier period, the medieval theory of the so-called Divine State originated. In the second half of the 8th century, the Frankish kingdom, created by Pepin and his son Charlemagne, included most of the territory of Western Europe. This made this state suitable for the role of spokesman for the interests of the Holy See. In this role, the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman) was replaced by him.

Having crowned Charlemagne with the imperial crown in the year 800, on December 25, Pope Leo III decided to break ties with Constantinople. He created the Western Empire. The political interpretation of the power of the Church as a continuation of the (ancient) Empire thus received its form of expression. It was based on the idea that one political ruler should rise above the world, who acts in harmony with the Church, which is also common to all. Moreover, both sides had their own spheres of influence, which God established.

Such a holistic view of the so-called Divine State was carried out in his reign almost in full by Charlemagne. Although it collapsed under his grandchildren, the tradition of the forefather continued to be preserved in the minds, which led to the establishment of a special education by Otto I in 962. It later became known as the Holy Roman Empire. It is this state that is discussed in this article.

German emperors

Otto, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, had power over the most powerful state in Europe.

He was able to revive the empire by doing what Charlemagne did in his time. But the possessions of this emperor were, however, significantly smaller than those belonging to Charles. They included mainly German lands, as well as the territory of central and northern Italy. Limited sovereignty was extended to some frontier uncivilized areas.

Nevertheless, he did not give the kings of Germany the imperial title of great powers, although they theoretically stood above the royal houses in Europe. Emperors ruled in Germany, using administrative mechanisms that already existed for this. Their interference in the affairs of the vassals in Italy was very insignificant. Here the main support of the feudal vassals were the bishops of various Lombard cities.

Emperor Henry III, beginning in 1046, received the right to appoint popes of his choice, just as he did with respect to bishops belonging to the German church. He used his power to introduce the ideas of church government in Rome in accordance with the principles of the so-called canon law (the Cluniac reform). These principles were developed in the territory located on the border between Germany and France. The papacy, after the death of Henry, turned against the imperial power the idea of ​​the freedom of the Divine State. Gregory VII, the pope, argued that spiritual authority is superior to secular. He launched an offensive against imperial law, began to appoint bishops on his own. This struggle went down in history under the name "struggle for investiture". It lasted from 1075 to 1122.

Hohenstaufen dynasty

The compromise reached in 1122, however, did not lead to final clarity on the vital issue of supremacy, and under Frederick I Barbarossa, who was the first emperor of the Hohenstaufen dynasty (who took the throne 30 years later), the struggle between the empire and the papal throne flared up again. The term "Holy" was added to the phrase "Roman Empire" under Frederick for the first time. That is, the state began to be called the Holy Roman Empire. This concept received further justification when Roman law began to be revived, as well as contacts were established with an influential Byzantine state. This period was the time of the highest power and prestige of the empire.

Spread of power by the Hohenstaufen

Frederick, as well as his successors on the throne (other Holy Roman Emperors) centralized the system of government in the territories that belonged to the state. They conquered, in addition, the Italian cities, and also established suzerainty over countries outside the empire.

As Germany moved eastward, the Hohenstaufen extended their influence in this direction as well. In 1194, the Sicilian kingdom departed to them. This happened through Constance, who was the daughter of the Sicilian king Roger II and the wife of Henry VI. This led to the fact that the papal possessions were completely surrounded by lands that were the property of the state of the Holy Roman Empire.

The empire falls

The civil war weakened its power. It flared up between the Hohenstaufens and the Welfs after Henry died prematurely in 1197. The papacy under Innocent III dominated until 1216. This pope even insisted on the right to resolve controversial issues that arise between applicants for the throne of the emperor.

Frederick II, after the death of Innocent, returned the former greatness to the imperial crown, but was forced to grant the right to the German princes to exercise in their destinies whatever they please. He, thus renouncing his leadership in Germany, decided to concentrate all his forces on Italy, to strengthen his position here in the ongoing struggle with the papal throne, as well as with the cities that were under the control of the Guelphs.

The power of emperors after 1250

In 1250, shortly after Frederick died, with the help of the French, the papacy finally overcame the Hohenstaufen dynasty. One can see the decline of the empire, if only in the fact that the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire were not crowned for quite a long time - in the period from 1250 to 1312. However, the state itself still existed in one form or another for a long period - more than five centuries. This was because it was closely associated with the royal throne of Germany, and also because of the vitality of the tradition. The crown, despite the many attempts made by the French kings in order to obtain the dignity of emperor, remained invariably in the hands of the Germans. Boniface VIII's attempts to lower the status of the emperor's power caused the opposite result - a movement in defense of it.

Decline of an empire

But the glory of the state is already in the past. Despite the efforts made by Petrarch and Dante, representatives of the mature Renaissance turned their backs on ideals that had outlived themselves. And the glory of the empire was their embodiment. Now only Germany was limited to its sovereignty. Burgundy and Italy fell away from her. The state received a new name. It became known as the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation".

By the end of the 15th century, the last links with the throne of the pope were broken. By this time, the kings of the Holy Roman Empire began to take the title without going to Rome to receive the crown. The power of the princes in Germany itself increased. The principles of election to the throne from 1263 were sufficiently determined, and in 1356 they were enshrined by Charles IV. The seven electors (they were called electors) used their influence to put forward various demands on the emperors.

This greatly weakened their power. Below is the flag of the Roman Empire that has existed since the 14th century.

Habsburg emperors

The crown has been in the hands of the Habsburgs (Austrian) since 1438. Following the trend that existed in Germany, they sacrificed the interests of the nation for the sake of the greatness of their dynasty. Charles I, King of Spain, was elected Roman Emperor in 1519 under the name of Charles V. He united under his rule the Netherlands, Spain, Germany, Sardinia and the Sicilian kingdom. Charles, Holy Roman Emperor, abdicated in 1556. The Spanish crown then passed to Philip II, his son. Charles's successor as Holy Roman Emperor was Ferdinand I, his brother.

The collapse of the empire

The princes throughout the 15th century tried unsuccessfully to strengthen the role of the Reichstag (which represented the electors, as well as less influential princes and cities of the empire) at the expense of the emperor. The Reformation that took place in the 16th century destroyed the existing hopes that the old empire could be rebuilt. As a result, various secularized states were born, as well as strife on the basis of religion.

The power of the emperor was now decorative. Meetings of the Reichstag turned into congresses of diplomats occupied with trifles. The empire degenerated into an unsteady union between many small independent states and principalities. On August 6, 1806, Francis II renounced the crown. Thus the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation collapsed.

100 great politicians Sokolov Boris Vadimovich

Charles I the Great, King of the Franks, Emperor of the West (Holy Roman Empire) (742 (or 743) -814)

Charles I the Great, King of the Franks, Emperor of the West (Holy Roman Empire)

(742 (or 743) -814)

The creator of the largest after the Roman Empire in Western Europe, the King of the Franks and Emperor of the West, Charlemagne was the son of the King of the Franks Pepin the Short, the founder of the Carolingian dynasty and the grandson of King Charles Metellus and Queen Bertha. He was born on April 2, 742 or 743 in Aachen. In 745, Charles, along with his brother Carloman, were anointed kings of the Franks by Pope Stephen III. As a child, Karl was taught only military science and the basics of public education, but he did not receive a systematic education. In 768, after the death of his father, Charles got the western part of the Frankish kingdom with its center in Noyon, and Carloman - the eastern. In 771 Carloman died and Charles united all the Franks under his rule. In 772, he set off on the first of his 40 conquest campaigns: Charles defeated the Saxons, who were plundering the Frankish border regions. Then, in the years 773-775, at the call of the Pope, he went to Italy, where he defeated the Lombards, led by King Desiderius. In 774, at the Battle of Pavia, the Lombards were defeated, and Desiderius was captured and imprisoned in a monastery. Charles proclaimed himself king of the Lombards, annexing northern Italy to the Frankish kingdom. After the capture of Lombardy, Charles moved to Rome, where he forced the pope to crown him king of the Franks and Lombards. By the end of 776, Charles had completed the conquest of Northern and Central Italy. The next object of conquest was the Arab Emirates in Spain. However, here Charles failed in the siege of the fortress of Zaragoza and in 778 was forced to retreat behind the Pyrenees. Only in 796 did Charles manage to undertake a new campaign in Spain, in 801 he captured Barcelona, ​​and by 810 he conquered the north of the country.

Charles sought to convert the Saxons to Christianity. By 779, the territory of Saxony was occupied by Frankish troops. However, in 782, an uprising broke out led by the leader of the Angrarian tribe, Vidukind, who had previously fled to Denmark to his brother-in-law, King Sigurd. The Frankish garrisons were defeated, and the Franks taken prisoner at the Battle of Zuntel were destroyed. In response, Charles executed 4.5 thousand Saxons in the city of Verden on the Adler River and defeated the Saxon leader Widukind in 785 at the Battle of Minden, after which Widukind swore allegiance to Charles and was baptized. In 793, a new uprising broke out in conquered Saxony, which Charles brutally suppressed, according to legend, ordering the beheading of 4,000 Saxons in one day. The main part of Saxony was pacified by 799, and the north of the country, due to the active opposition of the Danes, only in 804. Part of the Slavic tribes, under the onslaught of the Franks and Saxons, went east, laying the foundation for the Eastern Slavs.

In 787, Byzantium began a war against Charles, in alliance with which some of the Lombards, Bavarians and Avars nomads came out. Charles managed to quickly advance into southern Italy and force the Byzantine troops to retreat from there. In 787-788, Charles captured Bavaria, expelling Duke Tosilla III from there, who was later imprisoned in a monastery. Then he had to endure a long war with the Avars, which lasted from 791 to 803. In this war, the allies of the Franks were the Slavic princes of Slavonia and Carinthia. As a result, the state of the Franks was expanded to Lake Balaton and Northern Croatia.

In 799, the Roman nobility expelled Pope Leo III from the Papal States. He called on Charles for help. The Frankish troops restored the throne to the pope. At the head of the Frankish army, Charles entered Rome and forced the assembly of bishops to approve the thesis that no one has the right to judge the pope. Leo III was recognized as the head of the entire Catholic Church.

In gratitude for his help, on Christmas Day 800, Leo III crowned Charles Emperor of the revived Western Roman Empire. Later it was called the Holy Roman Empire. But the actual capital of the empire was not Rome, where Karl was only four times, but Karl's native Aachen. In order to recognize his title, Charles fought with Byzantium again in 802-812 and achieved his goal, although he did not receive any significant territorial acquisitions. In 786–799, the Franks under Charles conquered Brittany.

After 800, large campaigns ceased. Charles, with the strongest army on the continent, was now preoccupied with defending what he had conquered. This no longer required much effort, and more attention could now be paid to the internal structure of the empire. On the ground, the functions of administration were performed by the vassals of the emperor - counts and margraves (the latter controlled the border districts - marks and commanded border military detachments). The count led the militia, collected taxes and, together with the assessors - sheffens, ruled the court. The counts and margraves were observed by special representatives appointed by Charles - "the sovereign's envoys", a kind of auditors who also had the right to administer the court on behalf of Charles. Twice a year Charles convened the state diets. At the first of them - the spring, called the "May Fields", - all free Franks could be present, but in fact only some of their representatives were present - secular and spiritual feudal lords. At the second Diet - in autumn - only large landowners were present. At these meetings, Karl issued decrees, which were then collected in collections - capitularies. These collections were distributed throughout the empire so that the subjects had the opportunity to get acquainted with the adopted laws.

Charles also took a number of measures to educate the population. In his possessions, the study of Latin was organized, schools were established at the monasteries, and all the children of free people were ordered to receive an education. Charles also organized the teaching of theology and the correspondence of books, especially church ones.

Charles reformed the Frankish army. Previously, its strength was in the infantry, which consisted of free peasants. Karl also focused on the feudal cavalry militia. Karl ordered all beneficiaries (holders of large land grants) to appear on demand in the army with a horse, weapons, equipment. All equipment then cost an average of 45 cows. Royal vassals came to war with their servants, who were heavily armed infantry and light cavalry. Free peasants and the poorest of the servants of the beneficiaries became foot archers. All free Franks were obliged to arm themselves for the war at their own expense. Out of every five francs who had one plot of land, one warrior was equipped. During the war, the soldiers had the right to appropriate part of the spoils of war, giving the other part to the emperor.

Within his empire, Charles perfected the judicial system. The court was administered by governors (counts) together with bishops or monks. Also, the military leaders authorized by the emperor, together with the clergy, made trips to the provinces to conduct visiting courts in criminal and civil cases. The flowering of art, known as the Carolingian Renaissance, is associated with the name of Charles. The empire of Charles became the strongest power in the West.

Charles died in Aachen on January 28, 814 from a fever. He was succeeded by his son Louis, two other legitimate sons, Charles and Pepin, predeceased their father. In addition, Karl, who had three legal wives (one of them was considered the eldest) and five mistresses, had four illegitimate sons and eight daughters. In 843, according to the Treaty of Verdun, the empire was divided between the grandsons of Charles into three states, roughly corresponding to modern France, Germany and Italy, which were further fragmented into a larger number of countries. Charlemagne is often considered the founder of modern Western civilization. Interestingly, the name of Charles in the Latinized form, Carolus, "king", was later used to title the monarchs of Eastern Europe.

DESIRE CLARY AND JEAN-BAPTISTE BERNADOTE Emperor and king to choose from Please tell me what you think: does the personal position of a loved one at court - or at the ministry, or at the director - matter? Or does love conquer all? Whom to marry - the director or

CHARLES THE GREAT (or CHARLEMAGN) 742-814 King of the Franks since 768. Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire since 800. Frankish commander. He came from the Frankish royal dynasty of the Carolingians, was the grandson of Charles Martel. Born in the family of Pepin the Short in the city of Aachen, in

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500-1558) Charles V, who united under his scepter the Holy Roman Empire and Spain (where he was considered King Charles I) with its Spanish colonies, so that the sun never set on his empire, was the son of a king Philip I

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Frederick II the Great, King of Prussia (1712-1786) Frederick the Great, who went down in history as one of the greatest military leaders, is also famous for turning Prussia into a great power thanks to his military and diplomatic genius. He was born on January 24, 1712 in Berlin, in

Chapter 4 The influence of the Huns' invasion on the position of the Roman Empire, or the barbarians and Rome How did events unfold further in Europe?

A complex political union that lasted from 962 to 1806 and potentially represented the largest state, the founder of which was Emperor Otto I. At its peak (in 1050), under Henry III, it included German, Czech, Italian and Burgundian territories. She grew out of the East Frankish kingdom, proclaiming herself the heiress of the Great Rome, in accordance with the medieval idea of ​​"translatio imperii" ("transition of the empire"). The Sacred represented a conscious attempt at the revival of the state.

True, by 1600 only a shadow of its former glory remained from it. Germany was its heart, which by this period represented many principalities, successfully asserting themselves in their independent position under the rule of the emperor, which never had absolute status. Therefore, from the end of the fifteenth century, it is better known as the Holy Roman Nation.

The most important territories belonged to the seven electors of the emperor (the King of Bavaria, the Margrave of Brandenburg, the Duke of Saxony, the Count Palatine of the Rhine and the three archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne), who are referred to as the first estate. The second consisted of unelected princes, the third - from the leaders of 80 free imperial cities. Representatives of the estates (princes, princes, lords, kings) were theoretically subject to the emperor, but each had sovereignty on their lands and acted as they saw fit, based on their own considerations. The Holy Roman Empire was never able to achieve the kind of political unification that existed in France, developing instead into a decentralized, limited electoral monarchy made up of hundreds of subblocs, principalities, districts, free imperial cities, and other areas.

The emperor independently also owned lands in Inner, Upper, Lower and Front Austria, controlled Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia. The most significant area was the Czech Republic (Bohemia). When Rudolf II became emperor, he made Prague its capital. According to contemporaries, he was a very interesting, intelligent, reasonable person. However, unfortunately, Rudolf suffered from bouts of insanity, which developed from his tendency to depression. This had a profound effect on the government structure. More and more privileges of power fell into the hands of Mattias, his brother, despite the fact that he had no authority over it. The German princes tried to take advantage of this problem, but as a result (by 1600) they not only did not unite their efforts, but, on the contrary, a split occurred between them.

So, let's summarize what has been said. The main milestones of the political union of the territories: the formation of the Holy Roman Empire took place in 962. Otto, its founder, was crowned by the pope in Rome. Since the power of the emperors was only nominal.

Although some of them tried to change their position, to strengthen their positions of power, their attempts were prevented by the papacy and the princes. The last was Franz II, who, under pressure from Napoleon I, renounced the title, thereby putting an end to its existence.

Holy Roman Empire, for each new monarch, at least a double procedure became traditional: election in Germany and coronation in Rome (sometimes between them there was a coronation in Milan as king of Italy). The trip of the king from Germany to Rome in the Middle Ages, as a rule, turned into a military campaign. In addition, it was required to enlist the support of the pope, or wait for death or organize the overthrow of a hostile pope. From the election to the coronation in Rome, the pretender to the imperial throne was called the Roman king.

This title had another function. To ensure the transfer of power from father to son, almost every emperor tried to organize the election of a Roman king during his lifetime. Thus, the title of king of Rome often meant crown prince.

• Otto II the Red, 961-967 (son of Otto I)
• Otto III, 983-996 (son of Otto II)
• Henry II the Saint, 1002-1014 (second cousin of Otto III)
• Conrad II, 1024-1027
• Henry III, 1028-1046 (son of Conrad II)
• Henry IV, 1054-1084 (son of Henry III)
• Rudolf of Swabia, 1077-1080 (Henry IV's sister's husband)
• Hermann von Salm, 1081-1088
• Conrad, 1087-1098 (son of Henry IV)
• Henry V, 1099-1111 (son of Henry IV)
• Lothair II, 1125-1133
• Conrad III, 1127-1135
• Conrad III, 1138-1152 (aka)
• Henry Berengar, 1146-1150 (son of Conrad III)
• Frederick I Barbarossa, 1152-1155 (nephew of Conrad III)
• Henry VI, 1169-1191 (son of Frederick I)
• Philip of Swabia, 1198-1208 (son of Frederick I)
• Otto IV, 1198-1209
• Frederick II, 1196-1220 (son of Henry VI)
• Henry (VII), 1220-1235 (son of Frederick II)
• Heinrich Raspe, 1246-1247
• William of Holland, 1247-1256
• Conrad IV, 1237-1250 (son of Frederick II)
• Richard of Cornwall, 1257-1272
• Alphonse of Castile, 1257-1273
• Rudolf I, 1273-1291
• Adolf of Nassau, 1292-1298
• Albrecht I, 1298-1308 (son of Rudolf I)
• Henry VII, 1308-1312
• Louis IV, 1314-1328
• Friedrich of Austria, 1314-22, 1325-30
• Charles IV, 1346-47
• Charles IV, 1349-55 (aka)
• Günther von Schwarzburg, 1349
• Wenzel I, 1376-1378 (son of Charles IV)
• Ruprecht of the Palatinate, 1400-1410
• Sigismund, 1410-1433 (son of Charles IV)
• Yost, 1410-1411
• Albrecht II, 1438-1439
• Frederick III, 1440-1452
• Maximilian I, 1486-1508 (son of Frederick III)
• Charles V, 1519-1530
• Ferdinand I, 1531-1558 (brother of Charles V)
• Maximilian II, 1562-1564 (son of Ferdinand I)
• Rudolf II, 1575-1576 (son of Maximilian II)
• Ferdinand III, 1636-1637 (son of Ferdinand II)
• Ferdinand IV, 1653-1654 (son of Ferdinand III)
• Joseph I, 1690-1705 (son of Leopold I)
• Joseph II, 1764-1765 (son of Franz I)

• Napoleon II, 1811-1832 (son of Napoleon I)

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Notes

An excerpt characterizing the Roman king

Nine days after leaving Moscow, a messenger from Kutuzov arrived in Petersburg with official news of the abandonment of Moscow. This one was sent by the Frenchman Michaud, who did not know Russian, but quoique etranger, Busse de c?ur et d "ame, [however, although a foreigner, but Russian at heart,] as he himself said to himself.