Start in science. Start in Science Transformation of Peter. Social reorganization of Russia

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Lesson consolidation on the studied period of history (the era of Peter the Great) and aimed at developing practical skills.

Description

PeterI: tyrant or reformer.
Lesson Objectives:
Educational: to consolidate the knowledge gained in the process of studying the Peter the Great era .
Educational: the formation of students' ability to analyze documents, draw conclusions, set goals, highlight the main thing from the lesson material.
Educational: the formation of students' perception of a sense of patriotism, respect for the past of their country. Inspire pride in your homeland.
Tasks:
1. Find out in the process of research who Peter I was - a tyrant or a reformer.
2. To consolidate students' knowledge of events in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century.
In the class, 2 groups are distinguished in advance, opposite in their attitude to the personality of Peter. They are given the task to draw up their relationship to Peter the Great in the form of a table.
1team - Accusers (they believe that Emperor Peter I is, first of all, a tyrant).
2team - Defenders (they consider Emperor Peter I a great reformer).
Throughout history, since the time of Peter the Great, historians have argued about the personality and deeds of the emperor. There is no unambiguous assessment of his personality, as well as his transformations. They said about him: “The Tsar is a carpenter, “Peter, who cut a window to Europe”, “Severe, but fair and democratic”. Others join these judgments, emphasizing that Peter "expressed the interests of the ruling class" and "teared three skins from the working peasantry."
Peter I
Oh, mighty lord of fate!
Are you not so above the abyss,
At the height of the iron bridle
Raised Russia on its hind legs?
"The Bronze Horseman" A.S. Pushkin
A.S. Pushkin, a century later, will say that some of their decrees of the tsar were written with a whip ...
Now an academician, then a hero,
Now a navigator, now a carpenter,
He is an all-encompassing soul
On the throne was an eternal worker.(Pushkin A.S. "Stans")
Who was Peter the Great? Tyrant or reformer? What he was right about and what he was wrong about - these are the main questions of our discussion. Pay attention to the blackboard, which lists the basic rules of the discussion.
DISCUSSION RULES (Discussion rules are posted either on the board or shown using ICT. Students must be familiar with the rules at the beginning of the lesson)
1. You can't criticize people, only their ideas.
2. Each participant must have the right and opportunity to speak.
3. Listen carefully to your opponent, then state your point of view.
4. All positions without exception are subject to discussion.
5. Do not forget that the best way to convince the enemy is clear argumentation and flawless logic.
6. Speak clearly, precisely, simply, distinctly and in your own words, and not according to a "piece of paper."
7. Have the courage to admit that your opponent is right if you are wrong.
8. Never give "labels" and do not allow derogatory statements, skirmishes, ridicule.
Before you are excerpts from documents, with the help of this material you must answer this question. Before you worksheets, you must, in the course of acquaintance with the document, highlight the evidence that or a tyrant
Peter I is a great reformer .

Policy. As a result of the administrative, state reform carried out by Peter I, Russia received a clearer structure of state administration. The cumbersome system of orders was replaced by colleges, which were subordinate to the Senate. January 24 1722., the "Table of Ranks" was introduced, which introduced a new classification of employees. The nobility of the family in itself, without service, does not mean anything, does not create any position for a person, thus, the aristocratic hierarchy of the breed, the genealogical book, was put in its place.

Economy. Under Peter there was a significant growth of large-scale manufacturing industry. By 1725 there were 220 manufactories in Russia (and in 1690. only 21). Iron smelting increased 5 times, which made it possible to start exporting abroad. Under Peter I, trade took a noticeable step forward (internal and external. Metalworking plants were built in the Urals, in Karelia, near Tula. If before the beginning of the 18th century, Russia imported iron from abroad, then by the end of the reign of Peter I, the country began to sell it. deposits of copper ore (Urals) New types of manufactory appeared: textile, chemical, shipbuilding.

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Peter I tyrant or reformer..doc

History lesson in 7th grade.

Teacher: Lysova O.N. GOOU "Constellation", Volgograd

Peter I: tyrant or reformer.

Lesson Objectives:

Educational : to consolidate the knowledge gained in the process of studying the Peter the Great era.

Educational : the formation of students' ability to analyze documents, draw conclusions, set goals, highlight the main thing from the lesson material.

Educational : the formation of students' perception of a sense of patriotism, respect for the past of their country. Inspire pride in your homeland.

Tasks:

1. Find out in the process of research who Peter I was - a tyrant or a reformer.

2. To consolidate students' knowledge of events in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century.

In the class, 2 groups are distinguished in advance, opposite in their attitude to the personality of Peter. They are given the task to draw up their relationship to Peter the Great in the form of a table.

team - Accusers (they believe that Emperor Peter I is, first of all, a tyrant).

team - Defenders (they consider Emperor Peter I a great reformer).

Throughout history, since the time of Peter the Great, historians have argued about the personality and deeds of the emperor. There is no unambiguous assessment of his personality, as well as his transformations. They said about him: “The Tsar is a carpenter, “Peter, who cut a window to Europe”, “Severe, but fair and democratic”. Others join these judgments, emphasizing that Peter "expressed the interests of the ruling class" and "teared three skins from the working peasantry."

Peter I

Oh, mighty lord of fate!
Are you not so above the abyss,
At the height of the iron bridle
Raised Russia on its hind legs?

“The Bronze Horseman” A.S. Pushkin

A.S. Pushkin, a century later, will say that some of their decrees of the tsar were written with a whip ...

Now an academician, then a hero, Now a navigator, now a carpenter, He is an all-encompassing soul On the throne was an eternal worker. (Pushkin A.S. "Stans")

Who was Peter the Great? Tyrant or reformer? What he was right about and what he was wrong about - these are the main questions of our discussion. Pay attention to the blackboard, which lists the basic rules of the discussion.

DISCUSSION RULES (Discussion rules are posted either on the board or shown using ICT. Students must be familiar with the rules at the beginning of the lesson)

1. You can't criticize people, only their ideas.

2. Each participant must have the right and opportunity to speak.

3. Listen carefully to your opponent, then state your point of view.

4. All positions without exception are subject to discussion.

5. Do not forget that the best way to convince the enemy is clear reasoning and impeccable logic.

6. Speak clearly, precisely, simply, distinctly and in your own words, and not according to a "piece of paper."

7. Have the courage to admit that your opponent is right if you are wrong.

8. Never give "labels" and do not allow derogatory statements, skirmishes, ridicule.

Before you are excerpts from documents, with the help of this material you must answer this question. Before you worksheets, you must, in the course of acquaintance with the document, highlight the evidence that Peter I is a great reformer or a tyrant

Peter I is a great reformer.

Policy.As a result of the administrative, state reform carried out by Peter I, Russia received a clearer structure of state administration. The cumbersome system of orders was replaced by colleges, which were subordinate to the Senate. On January 24, 1722, the "Table of Ranks" was introduced, which introduced a new classification of employees. The nobility of the family in itself, without service, does not mean anything, does not create any position for a person, thus, the aristocratic hierarchy of the breed, the genealogical book, was put in its place.

Economy.Under Peter there was a significant growth of large-scale manufacturing industry. By 1725 there were 220 manufactories in Russia (and in 1690 only 21). Iron smelting increased 5 times, which made it possible to start exporting abroad. Under Peter I, trade took a noticeable step forward (internal and external. Metalworking plants were built in the Urals, in Karelia, near Tula. If before the beginning of the 18th century, Russia imported iron from abroad, then by the end of the reign of Peter I the country began to sell it. Deposits of copper ore were discovered. (Ural.) New types of manufactory appeared: textile, chemical, shipbuilding.

Army. Announced by decree of 1699 on the beginning of recruitment. In the period from 1699 to 1725, an army (318 thousand people, along with Cossack units) and a fleet were formed. The army was with a single principle of recruitment, uniform uniforms and weapons. Simultaneously with the creation of the army, the construction of the fleet continued. By the time of the Battle of Gangut (1714), the Baltic Fleet was created from 22 ships, 5 frigates and many small ships. Russia had both a navy and a merchant fleet.

Tsar Peter I founded the city on May 16 (27), 1703, laid a fortress on one of the islands in the Neva delta. In 1712, the capital of Russia was moved from Moscow to St. Petersburg. The city officially remained the capital until 1918.

On the question of religion .

Education and science . Under Peter I, Russia became a powerful European power. He paid great attention to education and science. Peter ordered all children of the nobility to learn to read and write, not only sent many to study abroad, but also opened schools and colleges in Moscow and St. Petersburg: a naval, engineering school, an artillery school. By order of Peter, the publication of the first printed newspaper in Russia began. It was called "Vedomosti" and was published in St. Petersburg since 1702. To facilitate reading and writing in 1708, he reformed the Russian alphabet, greatly simplifying it. In 1719, Peter founded the country's first Kunstkamera Museum. And, already at the end of his life, on January 28, 1724, Peter I issued a decree establishing the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Russia.

Don't you think that the Petrine manufactories, which use the labor of forced laborers, are not progressive capitalist enterprises? 2. Don't you think that as a result of the administrative reform, a cumbersome, bureaucratic system of governing the country has developed? What changes took place in the army, economy, politics during the reign of Peter the Great?

.

Policy . The administrative reforms carried out by Peter I led to an increase in various malfeasances, the number of officials and the cost of their maintenance increased. The burden of taxes fell on the shoulders of the people. The Northern War worsened the economic situation of the population, as they required huge material costs. Numerous taxes, direct and indirect, were introduced. All this worsened the position of the taxable population (peasants, townspeople, merchants, etc.).

Social side. The reforms of Peter I led to the strengthening of serfdom. The decree of Peter I in 1721 allowed manufacturers to buy villages with peasants for factories. The decree forbade the sale of factory peasants separately from the factory. Manufactories using forced labor were unproductive. The people responded to the deterioration of their situation with resistance. (Astrakhan uprising, the uprising of K. Bulavin, the uprising in Bashkiria).Peter used mass executions, torture, exile as a means of punishment. For example, The Streltsy rebellion of 1698 was a brutal massacre of the archers, which was committed by the sovereign. 799 archers were executed. Life was saved only for those who were from 14 to 20 years old, and even then they were beaten with whips.

Construction of St. Petersburg. In order to speed up the construction of stone houses, Peter even banned stone construction throughout Russia, except for St. Petersburg.

Church. Peter ordered to remove the bells from the churches, because. there was not enough metal for weapons for the army, up to 30 thousand pounds of bell copper was then brought to Moscow. Reform of the Synod of the Church: When Patriarch Adrian Peter died in 1700, he forbade choosing a successor. In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and the "Holy Governing Synod" was created to manage the church, which was subordinate to the Senate. The state tightened control over the income of the church from the monastic peasants, systematically withdrew a significant part of them for the construction of the fleet, the maintenance of the army, schools, etc. It was forbidden to create new monasteries, and the number of monks in existing ones was limited.

Old Believers. Tsar Peter allowed the Old Believers to live openly in cities and villages, but imposed a double tax on them. They took a tax from every man for wearing a beard, they took a fine from them and for the fact that the priests performed their spiritual duties. They did not enjoy any civil rights in the state. For disobedience, they were exiled to hard labor as enemies of the church and state.

Culture. The desire of Peter I to turn Russians overnight into Europeans was carried out by violent methods. Shaving beards, introducing European-style clothing. Dissenters were threatened with fines, exile, hard labor, and confiscation of property. Peter's "Europeanization" marked the beginning of the deepest gap between the way of life of the people and the privileged strata. Many years later, this turned into distrust of the peasantry towards any person from the "educated", since a nobleman dressed in European style, speaking a foreign language, seemed to the peasant a foreigner. Peter openly despised all folk customs. Peter, returning from Europe, ordered to forcefully shave his beards and wear foreign clothes. At the city outposts there were special spies who cut off the beards of passers-by and passers-by and cut off the floors of long national cut clothes. The beards of those who resisted were simply uprooted. On January 4, 1700, all residents of Moscow were ordered to put on wine-earth dresses. Two days were given to execute the order. It was forbidden to ride on Russian saddles. Merchants were graciously promised a whip, confiscation of property and hard labor for the sale of Russian dresses.

Don't you think there's more to cultural change than shaving beards? Do you think that the creation of new educational institutions, textbooks, museums, civil type are progressive phenomena in culture? Do you think it is possible for Russia to become a great empire without a strong army? Who should keep it?What actions could Peter take to achieve his goal, or what actions could he refrain from? Were alternative actions possible?

- So, you got acquainted with the documents and we need two masters who will record your evidence on this issue ( proofs are written by masters on the board, or shown using ICT) . So, you, as true historians, what conclusion did you come to when studying the documents. Was Peter I evil and treacherous, immoral and greedy, or was Peter the genius of the Russian land, a great reformer.

Yes, well, you painted a picture for us. Let's now listen to the defense team.

Summarize: we got two almost identical columns. What is the conclusion? Ask for your opinion (listen to students' answers)

What do you think, was there an alternative to the development of Russia, was it necessary to apply such radical measures?

Conclusion: History does not know the subjunctive mood. Peter the Great was and his deeds are great. I think and hope that our descendants will support me, that Tsar Peter I embodied so many different and sometimes contradictory qualities in himself that it is difficult to characterize him unambiguously. The merits of Peter I are so great that they began to call him the Great, and the state turned into an empire. Peter was naturally a reformer, but the methods he chose to carry out the reforms were radical. Yes, Peter appears before us violent and cruel, but such was the age. The new made its way. Just as fiercely and mercilessly as the obsolete old clung to life.

I would like to end our discussion with a statement by the historian M.P. Pogodin, who lived in Pushkin's times. In the book “Peter the Great” M.P. Pogodin wrote: “We are waking up. What day is it? January 1, 1841 - Peter the Great ordered to count the months from January. It's time to get dressed - our dress is sewn according to the style given by Peter the Great ... the essence is woven at the factory that he started, the wool is sheared from the sheep he bred. A book catches your eye - Peter the Great introduced this font into use and cut out these letters himself.

At dinner, from salted herring and potatoes, which he ordered to sow, to grape wine diluted by him, all dishes will tell you about Peter the Great. A place in the system of European states, administration, legal proceedings ... Factories, factories, canals, roads ... Military schools, academies are monuments to his tireless activity and his genius.

The era of Peter the Great is in many ways instructive for us today, when, as Peter the Great happened to do in his time, we have to create and defend a new Russia on the old obsolete basis, reform the army and navy, cultivate industriousness, active patriotism, devotion to state interests and love for the military. case. Love your Fatherland and be proud of Russia.

Bibliography:

A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulin "History of Russia: the end of the 16th - 18th centuries". M., "Enlightenment", 2010

Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia at the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. Moscow: Thought, 1995
Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great and his time, Moscow: Enlightenment, 1989

Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. M., Thought, 1990

Pogodin MP Peter the Great. - In the book: Historical and critical passages, vol. 1.M., 1846

Pushkin A.S. “The Bronze Horseman” Poems. Moscow., Bustard-Plus., 2010

Pushkin A.S. "Stans" Works in three volumes. St. Petersburg: Golden Age, Diamant, 1997.

documents on the topic Peter the tyrant or the reformer.doc

Peter I is a great reformer. Student card(s) ______________________

Policy.As a result of the administrative, state reform carried out by Peter I, Russia received a clearer structure of state administration. The cumbersome system of orders was replaced by colleges, which were subordinate to the Senate. Instead of the Boyar Duma, which did not play a significant role by the beginning of the 18th century, the Governing Senate was created, which has legislative, administrative and judicial power. The Boyar Duma was numerous, practically never convened, and is considered by historians to be an ineffective institution. The "Table of Ranks" was introduced. The list of ranks on January 24, 1722, the Table of Ranks, introduced a new classification of employees. This founding act of the reformed Russian bureaucracy put the bureaucratic hierarchy, merit and service, in place of the aristocratic hierarchy of the breed, the genealogical book. In one of the articles attached to the table, it is explained with emphasis that the nobility of the family in itself, without service, does not mean anything, does not create any position for a person: no position is given to people of a noble breed until they do not serve the sovereign and the fatherland. they will show "and for these character ("honor and rank", according to the then wording) they will not receive"

Economy.The most remarkable phenomenon in the economy of the late 17th and early 18th centuries was the significant growth of large-scale manufacturing industry. By 1725, there were 220 manufactories in Russia (and in 1690 only 21), that is, in 30 years the country's industry grew 11 times. Iron smelting increased 5 times, which made it possible to start exporting abroad. Under Peter I, trade (internal and external) made a noticeable step forward. Peter I based economic activity on a policy of mercantilism (stimulating exports and restricting imports). In 1726, exports amounted to 4.3 million rubles, and imports - 2.1 million rubles. In 1724, the Customs tariff came out (low export duties were introduced and high import duties - 75% of the cost). Metalworking factories were built in the Urals, in Karelia, near Tula. If before the beginning of the XVIII century, Russia imported iron from abroad, then by the end of the reign of Peter I the country began to sell it. Deposits of copper ore were discovered. (Ural.) There were manufactories associated with the production of linen, ropes, cloth. Moreover, the textile industry was actually created anew. A new branch of industry was shipbuilding (Voronezh, St. Petersburg.)

Army. The construction of a standing army was announced by decree of 1699. In the period from 1699 to 1725, 53 recruiting was carried out, which gave the army and navy 280 thousand people. The system of recruitment took shape over the course of five years, and by the end of the reign of Peter I, the total number of the army was 318 thousand people (together with the Cossack units). This is how a regular army was formed with a single principle of recruitment, uniform uniforms and weapons. Simultaneously with the creation of the army, the construction of the fleet continued. Until 1702, 28 ships, 23 galleys and many small vessels were built in Voronezh. Since 1702, ships have already been built in the Baltic, on the Syas River. By the time of the Battle of Gangut (1714), the Baltic Fleet was created from 22 ships, 5 frigates and many small ships.

Construction of St. Petersburg

Tsar Peter I founded the city on May 16 (27), 1703 by laying a fortress on one of the islands in the Neva delta. The city was named after St. Peter the Apostle. In 1712 the capital of Russia was moved from Moscow to St. Petersburg. The city officially remained the capital until 1918.

On the question of religion . Tsar Peter I proclaimed the principle of religious tolerance in the state. It was widely used in Russia by various religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Mohammedan, Jewish.

Education and science . Peter I paid great attention to education and science. He not only obliged all children of the nobility to learn to read and write, not only sent many to study abroad, but also opened schools and colleges in Moscow and St. Petersburg: a naval, engineering school, and an artillery school. By order of Peter, the publication of the first printed newspaper in Russia began. It was called "Vedomosti" and was published in St. Petersburg since 1702. To facilitate reading and writing in 1708, he reformed the Russian alphabet, greatly simplifying it. In 1719, Peter founded the country's first Kunstkamera museum. And, already at the end of his life, on January 28, 1724, Peter I issued a decree establishing the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Russia.

Personality of Peter. Peter himself always took a direct part in all events. The launching of a new ship was a celebration for the king. Peter the worker, Peter with callused hands - this is the personification of the entire Russian people in the so-called era of transformation. Memoirs of the Danish envoy Julius Yust: “I went to the Admiralty shipyard to be present at the lifting of the stems (the main beams in the hull of the ship). The king, as the chief ship master, disposed of everything, he chopped with an ax, which he wielded more skillfully than carpenters. Having made an order, the tsar took off his hat in front of the admiral-general who was standing there, asked him: “Should I wear it?”, and upon receiving an affirmative answer, put it on. The king expresses such respect to all senior persons in the service. Under Peter I, Russia became a powerful European power.

"Peter I is not a great reformer". Student card(s) ______________________

Policy . The administrative reforms carried out by Peter I led to an increase in various malfeasance, in connection with which in 1722 special authorities (fiscals, prosecutors) were created and the position of prosecutor general was introduced, which led to another increase in the number of officials and the cost of their maintenance. The burden of taxes fell on the shoulders of the people. All transformations in the country, incl. The Northern War worsened the economic situation of the population, as they required huge material costs. Numerous taxes were introduced, direct and indirect (changes in the tax system, the state introduced a monopoly on the sale of certain goods). All this worsened the situation of the tax-paying population (peasants, townspeople, merchants, etc.).

Social side. The reforms of Peter I led to the strengthening of serfdom. The decree of Peter I in 1721 allowed manufacturers to buy villages with peasants for factories. The decree forbade the sale of factory peasants separately from the factory. Manufactories using forced labor were unproductive. The tax reform enslaved "walking" people and serfs. The people responded to the deterioration of their situation with resistance. (Astrakhan uprising, the uprising of K. Bulavin, the uprising in Bashkiria)

Streltsy uprising 1698 - uprising of Moscowarchery regiments , caused not the hardships of service in the border cities, exhausting campaigns, harassment by the colonels. The Streltsy rebellion of 1698 was a brutal massacre of the archers, which was committed by the sovereign. Pyotr Alekseevich said: “And they deserve death for their innocence, that they rebelled.” After all, the investigation had not yet been completed, but the execution had already begun. Peter the First himself participated in them and even expressed dissatisfaction when the boyars, without due skill, chopped off the heads of the rebels. Alexander Menshikov boasted: "I personally cut off the head of 20 archers." 799 archers were executed. Life was saved only for those who were between 14 and 20 years old, and then they were beaten with whips.In the next six months, 1182 archers were executed, beaten with a whip, branded and 601 people were exiled. The investigation and executions continued for almost ten more years, the total number of executed reached 2,000 people.

Construction of St. Petersburg. In order to speed up the construction of stone houses, Peter even banned stone construction throughout Russia, except for St. Petersburg. Stonemasons were forced to go to work in St. Petersburg. In addition, a “stone tax” was taken from each cart that entered the city: you had to bring a certain amount of stone with you or pay a special fee. Peasants from all the surrounding regions came to the new lands to work on construction.Serfs were widely used for work in the project. It is believed that about 30,000 died during construction.

Church. All reforms were made for the people and in the name of the people... But what is the price of this? What did people pay for it? The Tsar encroached on the brightest thing that is in Rus' - on the Church of God! The Church has always helped the people, gave hope and faith. Peter ordered to remove the bells from the churches, because. there was not enough metal for weapons for the army, up to 30 thousand pounds of bell copper was then brought to Moscow. Every fifth temple was left without a language.

Church synod reform: When Patriarch Adrian Peter died in 1700, he forbade him to choose a successor. The management of the church was entrusted to one of the metropolitans, who served as the "locum tenens of the patriarchal throne." In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and the Holy Governing Synod, or the Spiritual College, was created to manage the church, which was also subordinate to the Senate. In parallel with this, the state increased control over the income of the church from the monastery peasants, systematically withdrew a significant part of them for the construction of the fleet, the maintenance of the army, schools, etc. It was forbidden to create new monasteries, the number of monks in existing ones was limited

Old Believers. The Old Believers did not have freedom in their native land. In the reign of Peter they were no longer burned in masses, but individual cases of burning and other executions were not rare. Tsar Peter allowed the Old Believers to live openly in cities and villages, but imposed a double tax on them. They took a tax from every man for wearing a beard, they took a fine from them and for the fact that the priests performed their spiritual duties. In a word, the Old Believers were a source of income for both the government and the clergy. However, they did not enjoy any civil rights in the state. The Old Believers were divided into the so-called "recorded" and "non-recorded". Noteworthy were those who were on a special account and paid a double tax; the unrecorded lived in secret, they were caught and exiled to hard labor as enemies of the church and state, despite the fact that they were the most faithful sons of their fatherland.

Culture. The desire of Peter I to turn Russians overnight into Europeans was carried out by violent methods. Shaving beards, introducing European-style clothing. Dissenters were threatened with fines, exile, hard labor, and confiscation of property. Peter's "Europeanization" marked the beginning of the deepest gap between the way of life of the people and the privileged strata. Many years later, this turned into distrust of the peasantry towards any person from the "educated", since a nobleman dressed in European style, speaking a foreign language, seemed to the peasant a foreigner. Peter openly despised all folk customs. He threw off his brocade royal clothes and dressed up in foreign camisoles. He imprisoned the legitimate queen in a monastery .... According to the Russian concept, barbering was a sin. Christ Himself wore a beard, the apostles wore beards, and all Orthodox must wear a beard.

I chose this essay topic because the personality of Peter I is interesting, ambiguous in the assessments of historians and ordinary people. Peter not only “cut a window to Europe”, but also did everything to make Russia from a boyar and ignorant one become a European country. N. I. Kostomarov writes in his work "Russian history in the biographies of its main figures." “Peter, as a historical figure, represents a peculiar phenomenon not only in the history of Russia, but in the history of all mankind of all ages and peoples. In Peter, not the genius of the artist, who understands the meaning of human nature, but nature itself created the opposite type - a man with an irresistible and indefatigable will, in whom every thought immediately turned into action. “I want it that way, because I think it’s good, and what I want, it must certainly be,” was the motto of all the activities of this person.

Peter's transformations. Fleet building.

For two and a half centuries, historians, philosophers, and writers have been arguing about the significance of Peter's transformations. Indeed, they can be evaluated in different ways. But everyone agrees on one thing: the Petrine reforms were the most important stage in the history of Russia. All of it can be divided into pre-Petrine and post-Petrine eras. The famous historian S. M. Solovyov wrote: “The difference in views came from the enormity of the deed accomplished by Peter, the duration of the influence of this deed; the more significant any phenomenon, the more contradictory views and opinions it generates, and the more they talk about it, the more its influence is on itself. The well-known Russian historian Kostomarov N. N. in his book “Russian history in the biographies of its main figures” wrote: “. Everything he learned, he sought to apply to Russia in order to transform it into a strong European state.

A positive assessment of the transformations in Russia is given by B. G. Pashkov in the book “Rus. Russia. Russian empire. Chronicle of the reigns of events 862-1917. ” describes the beginning of Peter’s transformations in this way: “Peter got stronger. Fun could no longer satisfy his needs. The White Sea was not enough for him. Peter began to dream about the Baltic, but the Swedes blocked access to the sea. Finally, he settled on a plan for access to the Black Sea. At the beginning of 1695, a campaign against Azov was scheduled. Peter understood that it was this city that gave access to the sea in the south of the country. On June 29, 1695, the army approached Azov. On July 8, the Russian battery began to operate, but the Turks constantly received reinforcements from the sea. Peter realized that Azov is not a game. Two assaults on the city failed. On September 27, they decided to retreat from Azov and prepare for a new campaign.

M. Aksenova in the encyclopedia for children "History of Russia" in the section "Azov campaigns", in my opinion, does not reveal the reasons for the unsuccessful first campaign, like A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina "History of Russia".

A more complete analysis, I believe, is given by N. I. Kostomarov in Russian History. Analyzing the reasons for Peter’s failures, he writes about the traitors, and also “the main reason was that the military leaders, independent of each other, acted independently, and therefore their orders lacked the necessary unity. The first failure did not plunge Peter into despondency. He ordered the construction of a rowing fleet on the Don for the convenient transportation of troops, for operations against the Turks from the sea, for communication with the Don Cossacks and the delivery of grain supplies to them. The construction of the ships proceeded with great difficulty. “Peter invented a means to create a fleet in the shortest possible time. On November 4, 1696, in the village of Preobrazhensky, the sovereign gathered a duma, to which foreigners were also invited. This Duma decided the following sentence: all residents of the Muscovite state to participate in the construction of ships. Estates, guests and merchants had to build ships, and small estates to help with a contribution of money.

S. F. Platonov describes the preparations for the second Azov campaign in this way. “The dissatisfaction among the people against foreigners, who were credited with failure, was very great. Peter did not lose heart, did not drive out foreigners and did not leave the enterprise. For the first time he showed here all the strength of his energy and in one winter, with the help of foreigners, he built on the Don, at the mouth of the Voronezh River, a whole fleet of sea and river ships. Many obstacles and failures were overcome by the tsar, who at that time became an autocratic sovereign. In May, the Russian army moved from Voronezh along the Don to Azov and laid siege to it for the second time. This time the siege was complete, because Peter's fleet did not allow Turkish ships to reach Azov. Peter himself was present in the army (in the rank of captain) and, finally, he waited for a happy moment: on July 18, Azov surrendered to capitulation. How hard the failure was before, so great was the joy in Moscow when they received news of the victory. Peter himself rejoiced: in success he saw the justification of his previous activities, his "fun". The victory was celebrated by the solemn entry of troops into Moscow, festivities and large awards. The allies were also solemnly informed of the Russian victory. In Poland and in the West, they did not expect such a success for Peter and were amazed by him.

N. I. Kostomarov writes about Peter’s future plans and his belief that there should be a fleet in Rus': “Peter’s passion for shipbuilding consistently attracted him to the closest rapprochement with Western Europe. The construction of ships, in the way that it was done in Voronezh, could not be a lasting matter for the future. It was necessary to prepare knowledgeable Russian masters. For this purpose, Peter sent fifty young stolniks abroad, each with a soldier. The purpose of the parcel was special training in ship art and architecture, and therefore they were sent to such countries where navigation flourished at that time: to Holland, England and Italy, mainly to Venice. This measure aroused a strong murmur: in Russia, which had lived for so many centuries in alienation from the West, fear constantly prevailed that the Russians, assimilating knowledge from other peoples, would not lose the purity of their faith; the clergy interpreted that Russian Orthodox people should not communicate with foreigners.

Those found guilty of such rumors were punished with a whip and exiled, but displeasure did not stop. Peter didn't look at anything; devoted to passion for his work, he decided to encourage and captivate his subjects by his own example. He confessed to the boyars that, having not received a proper education, he was not yet able to do the things that he considered useful for his state, and he did not see any other means than, having laid down the crown for a while, to go to enlightened European countries to study. There has never been such an example in the history of Russian tsars. Adherents of immovable antiquity greeted this intention with indignation. Peter was in the retinue of the embassy, ​​under the name of Captain Peter Mikhailov. The embassy went in March 1697 to the Swedish frontier.

About the Great Embassy of S. F. Platonov, “The Complete Course of Lectures on Russian History” writes and shows us Peter as a purposeful person: “For Peter himself, the journey was the last act of self-education. Conscious of the superiority of the West, he decided to bring his state closer to it through reform. We can safely say that Peter, as a reformer, matured abroad. Peter was attracted by maritime and military affairs, culture and industry, but comparatively very little was occupied by the social structure and administration of the West. Upon his return to Moscow, Peter immediately begins "reforms", finally breaks with the old traditions.

Peter's transformations. New phenomena in the way of life of people.

Returning from abroad, Peter began new transformations.

Kostomarov N. I. writes that the transformations of Peter in Russian life, which were carried out without indulgence, naturally, should have caused enmity, opposition. “The beginning of the transformations was a change in external signs that separated Russian life from European. Peter, the very next day after his arrival in Moscow, on August 26, in the Transfiguration Palace, began to cut off his beards with his own hands. Shaving beards and changing clothes from the first time aroused horror and showed that Peter would not show indulgence to the customs of ancient Russian life, which had taken on a religious significance.

The authors of the history of Russia A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina give an assessment of the significance of the cultural heritage of the Petrine era: “The main features of the development of culture in the era of Peter I were the strengthening of its secular principles and active penetration and even

planting Western European specimens. On the basis of the grandiose changes of the time of Petrovsky, domestic science was born and developed, the education system took shape, the artistic culture flourished not only in the subsequent decades of the 18th century, but also in the 19th century. The authors write that the cultural achievements introduced by Peter are not accepted and understood by the entire population of Russia. “However, the culture of the Petrine era was still of a transitional nature. It combined the innovations of Peter and the traditions of former Rus'. Moreover, all these innovations and achievements have become the property of only the upper strata of the population of a vast country. The main part of him perceived the new features of life that appeared under Peter, nothing more than the eccentricities of the king and masters himself. “At the end of 1699, Peter changed the way of reckoning. Peter ordered January 1 of this year 7208 to be celebrated as the New Year and this January to be considered the first month of the year 1700 from the Nativity of Christ.

N. I. Kostomarov describes it this way: “The New Year of 1700 was celebrated in Moscow on the royal orders for seven whole days. The king ordered that at weddings and all kinds of public entertainments, women should be together with men, and not especially, as was done before, and that there should also be music and dances at such gatherings. Those who voluntarily did not want to have fun on a foreign model had to fulfill the will of the king; the stubborn were punished with fines. Peter abolished the ancient custom - to make marriages at the will of the parents, without any participation of their children who entered into a marriage union. The tsar had to fight many features of the savagery of his time: for example, in February it was forbidden to sell sharp-pointed knives, which Russians usually carried with them and often fought to the death with them; the punishment of the ignorant, who, not knowing the medical sciences, undertook to heal the sick and did harm. A secular school appeared and the monopoly of the clergy on education was abolished. Peter I founded the Pushkar School (1699), the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences (1701), the Medical and Surgical School; the first Russian public theater was opened. In St. Petersburg, the Naval Academy (1715), engineering and artillery schools (1719), schools of translators at collegiums were established, the first Russian museum - a cabinet of curiosities (1719) with a public library was opened. Since 1703, the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti, was published; in 1708-10, a "civilian" font close to the modern one was introduced instead of a semi-ustav. In 1725 the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was opened with a gymnasium and a university. In the era of Peter I, many buildings were erected for state and cultural institutions, the architectural ensemble of Peterhof (Petrodvorets). Fortresses were built (Kronstadt, Peter and Paul Fortress, etc.). It was the beginning of the planning of cities (Petersburg), the construction of residential buildings according to standard projects. Peter I encouraged the activities of scientists, engineers, artists, etc. All reforms in the field of culture were characterized by the development of ties with Western European culture and were closely connected with the tasks of strengthening the absolutist state.

With F. Platonov, he writes about Peter's difficult internal struggle when introducing something new into people's lives, shows him as a tyrant:

“There was a murmur in society about cruelty, about Peter’s innovations, about foreigners who led Peter astray. To the voice of public displeasure, Peter responded with repressions: he did not yield a single step on the new path, mercilessly tore all ties with the past, lived himself and forced others to live in a new way. Peter felt restless, irritated, losing his temper.

N. I. Kostomarov believes that Peter's innovations brought harm to Russia in the subsequent time, because during the reforms he neglected moral concepts.

“The Russian people saw in their tsar an opponent of piety and good morals; the Russian tsar was annoyed with his people, but he persistently wanted to force them to go by force along the path indicated by him. One thing gave him hope for success: the old obedience to tsarist power, slavish fear and patience that amazed all foreigners, that patience with which the Russian people in past centuries endured both the Tatar yoke and the arbitrariness of all despots. Peter understood this and said: “With other European peoples, it is possible to achieve the goal in philanthropic ways, but not so with the Russians: if I had not used strictness, I would not have owned the Russian state for a long time and would never have made it what it is now. I am not dealing with people, but with animals that I want to transform into people." He neglected not only religious prejudices, but also more essential moral concepts.

Then he continues: “All the orders of that time, concerning the external side of life, irritated Peter’s contemporaries as much as brought harm to Russia in subsequent times. It was they who taught the Russians to rush at the outward signs of education, often with detriment and inattention to the inner content. Between those who had assimilated a European appearance and the rest of the people, an abyss formed, and meanwhile, in a Russian man, covered with a European gloss, all the internal signs of ignorance, rudeness and laziness were retained for a long time. This sad property took root in Russian society and continues to dominate to this day; it was introduced into Russian customs by Peter the Great. The Russian people were not at all so hostile to acquaintance with knowledge as they were to foreign methods of life that were forced upon them. It was possible, without caring at all about appearance, to carry on the work of internal transformation and public enlightenment, and the appearance would change by itself.

N. M. Karamzin in “History of the Russian State”, condemns Peter, compares Russia after Peter’s transformations with an unfinished building: “The offspring gave zealous praise to this immortal Sovereign. But we Russians, will we say that Peter is the Creator of our state greatness? Let's keep silent about personal vices; but this passion for customs new to us overstepped the bounds of prudence in him. Peter did not want to delve into the truth that the spirit of the people is the moral power of the State, like the physical, necessary for their firmness. This spirit and faith saved Russia during the Pretenders. The sovereign of Russia humiliated the Russians in their own hearts. Russian clothes, food, beards did not interfere with the establishment of schools. Two States can stand on the same level of civic enlightenment, having different customs. A state can borrow useful information from another without following it in its customs. Let these customs naturally change, but to attribute the Rules to them is violence, lawless even for an autocratic monk. For centuries, the people got into the habit of honoring the Boyars, as men marked by greatness: they worshiped them with true humiliation. Peter destroyed the dignity of the boyars: he needed Ministers, Chancellors, Presidents! Russian women stopped blushing at the indiscreet gaze of men, and European liberty took the place of Asian coercion. Platonov S. F. gives a commentary on the role of Peter by N. M. Karamzin: “Peter as a figure Karamzin preferred another historical figure - Ivan III. This latter made his principality a strong state and introduced Rus' to Western Europe without any breaking and violent measures. Peter, on the other hand, raped Russian nature and sharply broke the old way of life. Karamzin thought that one could do without it. With his views, Karamzin became in some connection with critical views on Peter. He did not show the historical necessity of Peter's reforms, but he already hinted that the need for reform was felt before Peter." The thoughts of S. F. Platonov are close to me. The personality of Ivan the Terrible, his methods in carrying out reforms were assessed ambiguously by many historians and people. Ivan III is a great ruler who made his state strong. But Peter the reformer was already needed. I believe that Peter I was a great reformer and his harsh measures were necessary for the enlightenment and cultural development of Russia. And, if Peter I had more supporters and like-minded people, perhaps it would have been possible to avoid human casualties and violence during the reforms.

Peter's transformations. military reform.

The military reform of Peter is connected with the war for access to the seas: Black and Baltic.

S. F. Platonov, in his work “The Complete Course of Lectures on Russian History”, part 3, writes: “the end of the beginning of the form Since 1700, Peter began the Swedish war.

end of formbeginning of formIt can be said with certainty that at the very beginning of the war with Sweden, Peter had a single goal - to take possession of the coast of the Gulf of Finland, to acquire a sea with a convenient harbor.

end of the beginning of the form Peter began the campaign in the fall, the weather interfered with military operations, impassability left the army without bread and fodder. The shortcomings of the military organization made themselves felt: although the troops stationed near Narva were regular, of a new order, Peter himself confessed that they were "not trained." In addition, most of the officers were foreigners, not loved by the soldiers, who did not know Russian well, and there was no one power over the entire army. The Narva defeat showed the weak combat effectiveness of the Russian troops and the need to accelerate the reform of the Russian army. S. F. Platonov, exploring the causes of the Narva defeat, points out: “end of form, beginning of form, Peter considered the case near Narva lost and left to prepare the state for defense against the Swedish invasion. end of form beginning He left to his share the difficult task of organizing state defense and military forces. end of form beginning of form In the spring of 1703, after a trip to Voronezh, Peter again appeared on the Neva with Sheremetev's troops, took the fortification of Nyenschantz (near the mouth of the Neva) and founded the fortified harbor of St. Petersburg by the sea (in May 1703). Peter valued the new harbor very much, and all further military operations in the north were aimed at ensuring the possession of St. Petersburg. To this end, there was a systematic conquest of the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland. “On June 27, 1709, the famous battle of Poltava took place. This general battle ended with the complete flight of the Swedes to the south.

N. I. Kostomarov describes the victory of the Russian troops:

“The Battle of Poltava received in Russian history such a significance that no other had before. The Swedish strength was broken; Sweden, which occupied a first-class place among the European powers, lost it forever, yielding to Russia.

In the eyes of all Europe, Russia, hitherto despised, has shown that she is already in a position, by her means and military education, to fight the European powers, and therefore has the right to be treated by other powers as an equal."

N. I. Kostomarov also connects the reforms of the army with the conduct of the war: “Peter, having received news of the defeat, did not lose heart, but on the contrary, he realized that it could not be otherwise, attributed the misfortune to the lack of training and order in the army and with more vigorous activity took steps to improve. In anticipation of an enemy attack, in cities close to the border, Peter ordered to hastily build fortifications, sent to work not only soldiers and male residents, but even women, priests and clerks, so that for some time in churches, except for cathedrals, there was no worship. It was ordered by the spring to recruit new regiments, prepare new guns, and take bells from churches and monasteries for pouring into cannons. Ordinary Russian laziness interfered a lot with the speedy production of work, but Peter severely punished any disobedience and evasion from his will: he ordered to be beaten with a whip for failure to appear at work, to be hanged. With such measures, within a year after the battle of Narva, the king already had more than three hundred new weapons prepared. »

S. F. Platonov covers in most detail the military reform of Peter, who, according to him, first of all takes into account the national interests of Russia and achieves a brilliant result as a result, although: “He undertook the war with Sweden with a deep understanding of national interests and was looking for victories not personal glory, but the best conditions for the cultural and economic prosperity of Russia - and Peter directed his inner activity towards the achievement of the people's good. But when the Swedish war became the main business of Peter and demanded enormous efforts, then Peter involuntarily gave himself up to it, and his inner activity itself became dependent on military needs. The war demanded troops: Peter was looking for funds to better organize the military forces, and this led to the reform of the military and to the reform of the noble services. The war required funds: Peter was looking for ways to raise the paying power of the state, and this led to a tax reform, to encourage industry and trade, in which Peter always saw a powerful source of people's well-being. Peter changed the organization of the troops. He made the regular regiments the dominant, even exclusive type of military organization. He, differently than before, began to replenish the troops. Only in this respect can he be considered the creator of the new Russian army. Peter tied the soldier exclusively to the service, tearing him away from home and trade. Military service now fell on all classes of society, except for the clergy and citizens. In 1715, the Senate decided, as a norm for recruiting, to take one recruit from 75 households of the owner's peasants and serfs. Recruits from the tax-paying classes in the troops became on the same level as the soldiers-nobles, mastered the same military equipment, and the entire mass of the serving people made up a homogeneous army, not inferior in its fighting qualities to the best European troops. At the end of the reign of Peter the Russian regular army consisted of 210,000 people. The basis of the new army was the "amusing" regiments - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky. It was equally important to create their own war economy. Its beginning was laid by the transfer of the state-owned Nevyansk plant in the Urals by the Tsar Nikita Demidov. In 1701-1704. The factory owners Demidovs built the first large metallurgical plants in the country. State-owned manufactories were created for the production of gunpowder, small arms, as well as cloth for uniforms. In 1716, Tsar Peter adopted the "Military Regulations", summarizing 15 years of experience in military operations. Russia has become one of the great military and maritime powers of Europe.”

S. F. Platonov describes the significance of the world for Russia and the formation of the All-Russian Empire: Naturally, he transferred military operations to the Baltic Sea and in 1710 took Vyborg, Riga and Revel. The Russians became a firm foot on the Baltic coast, the existence of St. Petersburg was ensured. On August 30, 1721, peace was concluded in Nishtad. Russia became the main power in the north of Europe, finally entered the circle of European states, associated itself with them by common political interests and received the opportunity of free communication with the entire West through the newly acquired borders. During the solemn celebration of peace on October 22, 1721, the Senate presented Peter with the title of Emperor, Father of the Fatherland and Great. Peter took the title of Emperor. The Muscovite state thus became the All-Russian Empire, and this change served as an external sign of the turning point that took place in the historical life of Rus'.

Peter's transformations. Petersburg construction.

"In 1703. On May 16, on the island, which was called Janni-Saari and was renamed Peter Lust-Eiland (that is, the Merry Island), on the day of the Holy Trinity, Peter founded the city. In November 1703, the first Dutch merchant ship arrived in the city just founded by Peter. Peter personally led him to the harbor. At this time, the tsar spoke to his nobles a wonderful speech, the meaning of which was as follows: “None of you, brothers, even dreamed about thirty years ago that we would be carpentry here, wear German clothes, build a city in the country we conquered, we will live to see brave Russian soldiers and sailors, and many foreign artists, and our sons who returned from foreign lands smart, we will live to see foreign sovereigns respect me and you. In our century, we will shame other educated countries and exalt the Russian name to the highest degree of glory. Peter had such a view of the future fate of Russia, and, according to his assumption, Petersburg was the foundation of a new Russia. Peter's favorite epithet for his creation was the word "paradise". All of Russia had to work for the structure and population of this paradise. After the victory over the Swedes, Peter, considering his beloved Petersburg already strong for Russia, set about organizing it in a more energetic way, and this served as a pretext for such a burden on the people, with which all other measures could hardly be compared. In 1708, forty thousand workers were sent to St. Petersburg. In 1709, it was ordered to collect the same number - 40,000 people and drive them to work in St. Petersburg. In June 1714, it was indicated to people of various ranks to build courtyards in St. Petersburg. They were to be built during the summer and autumn of 1714. For three years, from 1718-1721, the government paid great attention to the improvement and deanery of the new city. One of the signs of social life in the new city was the establishment of assemblies. On November 26, 1718, Peter gave a decree about this. "Assembly", according to the interpretation of this decree, "is a French word, which in Russian cannot be expressed in one word, but to say in detail - free, where an assembly or congress is held not only for fun, but also for business, where you can see each other and talk or hear what is being done." The sovereign continued to take care of the settlement of his beloved St. Petersburg. In March 1722, it was ordered to take 350 carpenters with their families from various northern cities and counties to live in St. Petersburg. All of them were obliged to arrive by the next winter and, under pain of deprivation of everything movable and immovable, to begin construction. Each house must be ready by 1726, on pain of confiscation of half of the estate. Peter had a desire to give his St. Petersburg a local patron and chose the holy prince Alexander Nevsky for this purpose. On June 4, 1723, the sovereign ordered his relics to be transported from Vladimir to the Alexander Nevsky Monastery. The relics were met a few miles from St. Petersburg by the tsar himself and delivered by ship to the Alexander Nevsky Monastery.

N. M. Karamzin in his work “History of the Russian State” calls the construction of St. Petersburg a big mistake of Peter, which led to the death of people: “Can we hide from ourselves another brilliant mistake of Peter the Great? I mean the foundation of a new capital on the northern edge of the State, among the swells of the swamps, in places condemned by nature to barrenness and lack. Even without having either Riga or Revel, he could lay a merchant city on the banks of the Neva for the import and export of goods; but the thought of establishing the sojourn of our Sovereigns there was, is, and will be harmful. How many people died, how many millions were used to put this intention into action? We can say that Petersburg is based on tears and corpses. Transformed Russia then seemed like a majestic unfinished building.

Peter's transformation. Social reorganization of Russia.

S. F. Platonov in his lectures justifies the unsystematic nature of Peter's measures in the social reorganization of Russia: “Only in the last years of his reign, when the war no longer required excessive efforts and means, Peter took a closer look at the internal structure and sought to bring into a system a number of separate events at different times. Was it possible, under this condition, to indulge in systematic reform, when military needs determined all the internal activities of the government?

His upbringing and life could not develop in him an inclination towards abstract thinking: in all his make-up he was a practical figure who did not like anything abstract.

The common sense of the reformer kept him from transplanting doctrines completely alien to Russian soil. If Peter transferred the collegial structure of administrative bodies to Rus', it is because everywhere in the West he saw this form of government and considered it the only normal and suitable one.

N. I. Kostomarov in his classic work “History of Russia” emphasizes that only a boundless, absolute monarchy made it possible for Peter to carry out reforms.

“Peter was autocratic, and at such a moment in history, into which Russia then entered, only autocracy could be suitable. A free republican system is no good at a time when it is necessary to change the fate of the country and the spirit of its people, uproot the old and plant the new. Only where autocracy is limitless can a bold lord dare to demolish and rebuild the entire state and public edifice. Many new institutions and ways of life were introduced by the reformer to Russia; he could not breathe a new soul into her; here his power was powerless. Only the spiritual upbringing of society could create a new man in Russia, we owe this by no means to Peter.” “Torture of the Preobrazhensky Prikaz and the secret office, painful death penalty, prisons, penal servitude, whips, tearing of the nostrils, espionage, encouragement with awards for denunciation. Peter in such ways could not instill in Russia either civic courage, or a sense of duty, or that love for his neighbors, which is higher than all material and mental forces and more powerful than knowledge itself; in a word, having created many institutions, creating a new political system for Rus', Peter still could not create a living, new Rus'.

Peter's transformations. Church reform.

With the establishment of the Synod, Peter got out of the difficulty in which he had stood for many years. His church-administrative reform preserved authoritative power in the Russian church, but deprived this power of the political influence with which the patriarchs could act. The question of the relationship between church and state was decided in favor of the latter. S. F. Platonov in his "Lectures" indicates that under Peter I, the process of turning the church into one of the most important state institutions, completely subordinate to the highest secular power, was completed. “For more than twenty years (1700-1721) a temporary disorder continued, in which the Russian church was governed without a patriarch. Finally, on February 14, 1721, the "Holy Governing Synod" was opened. This spiritual college forever replaced the patriarchal authority. The Spiritual Regulations frankly pointed out the imperfection of the patriarch's one-man management and the political inconveniences resulting from the exaggeration of the authority of the patriarchal authority in state affairs. The composition of the Synod was similar to that of the secular colleges. The political significance of the Synod has never risen as high as the authority of the patriarchs.

At the end of his reign, Peter expressed his views on the social significance of monasteries in the "Announcement of Monasticism" (1724). Monasteries should have a charitable purpose and should serve to prepare people for higher spiritual positions. With all his activities regarding the monasteries, Peter strove to bring them into line with the indicated goals.

In 1721, the Synod issued an important decree on allowing marriages between Orthodox and non-Orthodox. Political motives were partly guided by Peter in relation to the Russian schism. In the second half of Peter's reign, repressions went along with religious tolerance: schismatics were persecuted as civil opponents of the ruling church; at the end of the reign, religious tolerance seemed to have decreased, and the restriction of the civil rights of all schismatics without exception followed. In 1722, the schismatics were even given a certain outfit, in the features of which there was, as it were, a mockery of the schism. The church reform finally turned the church into a pillar of Russian absolutism.

Peter's transformations. Reforms of central and local government.

A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina in “History of Russia” write: “The trend towards absolutism that emerged back in the 17th century required even greater centralization of power in the conditions of the Northern War. In 1699, the Boyar Duma was replaced by the Tsar with the Near Chancellery, renamed in 1708 into the “Council of Ministers”.

The next step was the creation in 1711 of the Governing Senate, which became the highest government institution. The tsar appointed 9 people to the Senate. In 1722, a prosecutor general was appointed, who was called the eye of the sovereign in the Senate. The reform of 1718-1720 abolished cumbersome and clumsy orders and introduced colleges. Initially, there were 11 of them. Each board was headed by a president, vice president, and several advisers. To guide the activities of the collegiums, the General Parliament and the regulations of each collegium were issued. Cases of state crimes were in charge of the Preobrazhensky Prikaz, and then the Secret Chancellery. They were under the control of the emperor himself.

In 1708, in order to strengthen the local apparatus of power and increase its authority and role in governance, the country was divided into eight provinces (later their number increased. They were headed by governors appointed by the king and possessing administrative, military and judicial power. The provinces were divided into counties, and later on the provinces.

N. I. Kostomarov emphasizes that when reforming the government, Peter sought to put the royal power at the head of everything: “On February 5, 1722, a new law on succession to the throne was issued, which, one might say, destroyed any meaning of tribal law in this matter. Any reigning sovereign, in accordance with this law, could, according to his arbitrariness, appoint a successor to himself. "To whom he wants, he will determine the inheritance, and to a certain one, seeing what obscenity, packs to cancel."

Since Peter wished to put the civil service above the prejudices of the breed, then the other legalizations of Peter that followed were of the same nature. S. F. Platonov points out that the old essence remained in Peter’s administrative reforms: “Peter’s institutions nevertheless became very popular in Rus' in the 16th and 2nd centuries. In Peter's administration, "the old Russia had all its effect in the reform institutions." The foundations of the administrative system remained the same: Peter left the entire administration of Russia in the hands of almost exclusively nobles, and the nobility carried the entire administration in the 17th century; Peter mixed the collegiate principle with the sole one in the administration, as was the case before; Peter, as before, managed the "order system", ordering the administration to the Senate, with the prosecutor general. Thus, under the new forms, the old essence remained. On February 5, 1722, a new law on succession to the throne was issued, which, one might say, destroyed any meaning of tribal law in this matter.

Peter's transformations. Latest events.

“In August 1723, Peter surveyed the fleet in Kronstadt and admired his work, which he had done with love throughout his life. The entire fleet in 1723 consisted of 24 ships and 5 frigates, it had 1,730 guns and up to 12,500 crew members. It seems that at that time already Peter had a flash of the idea to transfer the throne after himself to his wife Catherine. True, Peter did not express this directly anywhere, but such an assumption can be conveniently deduced from his actions at that time. In the spring of 1724, Peter decided to crown her; she already bore the title of empress, but only by her husband. Peter wanted to give this title to her person, regardless of marriage. On May 7, 1724, the empress was crowned with great solemnity at the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Peter personally laid the crown on Catherine.

“This law of Peter after his death more than once subjected the fate of the Russian throne to fluctuations, and Peter himself did not use it. He did not appoint a successor; indirectly, as they thought, Peter pointed to his wife as the chosen heiress, ”S. F. Platonov wrote about this event.

“On January 27, Peter expressed a desire to write an order on the succession to the throne. The papers were handed to him; the sovereign began to write and managed to write only two words: "give everything" - and he was no longer able to write, but ordered to call his daughter Anna Petrovna so that she would write from his words, but when the young princess appeared, Peter no longer could not utter a single word. The next day, at four o'clock in the morning, Peter died.

Reflecting on the personality of Peter, on his reforms, I sometimes involuntarily transferred myself to those Peter's times, as if trying on what people experienced. And, admiring the personality of Peter, considering him one of the greatest political figures in Russia, I believe that many of Peter's actions cannot be justified by any historical necessity. Still, the idea of ​​statehood cannot be higher than human life and individual freedom.

While working on the abstract, I significantly expanded my knowledge of the history of Russia. I think that I will continue to work on this topic in the future.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE PERM KRAI

STATE BUDGET PROFESSIONAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

"Gornozavodsky Polytechnic College"

INDIVIDUAL PROJECT

discipline: "History"

Theme: "Peter the Great"

Specialty / profession: 38.02.05 Commodity research and examination of the quality of consumer goods

Group: TEK-113

Head: Poskina Olga Vladimirovna

Gornozavodsk, 2018

Content

I.

Conclusion

Bibliography

Annex 1.

Appendix 2

Appendix 3

Introduction

Peter the Great is a controversial, complex figure. This is how his era was born. From his father and grandfather, he inherited the traits of character and mode of action, worldview and plans for the future. At the same time, he was a bright personality in everything, and this is what allowed him to break established traditions, customs, habits, enrich the old experience with new ideals and deeds, borrow what is necessary and useful from other peoples.

Eyewitnesses told posterity that the Russian tsar was distinguished by ease of handling, undemanding, unpretentiousness in everyday life. The houses or palaces built for him were not large and pompous. He did not tolerate high ceilings and, where they were, ordered to make a second one, lower, from wood or, at worst, from canvas. By nature, a kind person, he could caress not only a sensible nobleman, but also a carpenter, blacksmith or sailor, shared shelter and food with them, baptized their children. He did not like any official ceremonies and thus amazed foreign observers, especially kings, princesses and other aristocrats.

However, the habit of power, the servility of those around him explains, but does not justify such qualities in Peter as rudeness and cruelty, permissiveness and disregard for human dignity, arbitrariness in politics and in everyday life. He realized and emphasized more than once that he is an absolute monarch, and everything that he does and says is not subject to human judgment, only God will ask him for everything, both good and bad. Peter was sincerely convinced that everything emanating from him was for the good of the state, the people. And therefore the laws created by him, the institutions that appeared according to his will, are the "fortification (fortress) of truth." The fact that he himself worked tirelessly, building, according to his ideas and plans, this "fortification" of the Russian state, one cannot help but see. But did he see that his efforts did not benefit everyone (the “common good”), or at least not everyone equally? In any case, along with those who won a lot behind the walls of the fortification, erected primarily by the labor and exploits of the people, the majority of this people received little or nothing, and part of them lost a lot: hundreds of thousands of people fell into serfdom, an even greater number people were subjected to increased taxes, extortions, forced mobilization, work, etc.

A remarkable feature of Peter the Great as a ruler, an absolute monarch, is a huge personal contribution to the administration of the state, its foreign policy, military actions, attracting gifted, talented, capable people to the affairs - administrators, commanders, diplomats, organizers of various industries, masters of their craft. He tirelessly identified them, brought them up, guided them. Of course, Peter's tough temper could not but leave an imprint on his relationship with his associates and helpers. With all his democracy and playful humiliation, the king showed his will, iron and indestructible, in everything. He did not tolerate objections where he had already made a decision, he exploded with anger at the slightest trifle. He was feared like fire even by the people closest to him, like-minded people and friends.

The personality of Peter the Great interested me in particular, and not just historians, because indeed the history of Russia knew only a few such rulers, strong, powerful, but pursuing the only goal of the prosperity of their state.

Goal of the work: to study the personality of PeterIand his reforms.

Tasks , put by me to solve the problematic issue:

Examine the activities of PeterI.

To study the points of view of various historians on the reform activities of PeterI.

Problem: Great reformer or great tyrant?

Chapter 1. The first steps of the young emperor.

An important condition for the beginning of reforms was the very personality of the king-transformer. Established in the historical conditions of the endXVIIcentury Peter Alekseevich was born in 1972 and was the fourteenth child in the family of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, who died in 1676. The elder half-brother of Peter, the sickly and pious Fyodor Alekseevich, ascended the throne. During his reign, tax and military reforms were carried out, localism was abolished. After the death of Fedor in 1682, various court factions fought for the proclamation of the tsar of 10-year-old Peter - the son of Alexei Mikhailovich from his second wife - N. Naryshkina, or 16-year-old, poor health Ivan, the son of the tsar from his first wife - M. Mislavskaya. the Mislavsky group, led by the energetic and power-hungry Princess Sophia Alekseevna, achieved the approval of two brothers on the throne at once, with Sophia's actual regency.

Peter and his entourage were removed from the Kremlin and lived in the village of Preobrazhensky near Moscow. Peter's passion was military fun, in which the children of service people and ordinary people took part. It was from them that the “amusing regiments” were formed - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, which then became the basis of the regular army and the first guards regiments. The years of adolescence also had the first acquaintance of Peter with foreigners. Visiting the German settlement, he learned a different type of human relations, got acquainted with other cultures and way of life.

In 1689, Sophia was removed from power and sent to the Novodevichy Convent. The direct state activity of Peter began with the organization in 1695 of the first Azov campaign. It was not possible to take the powerful Turkish fortress due to the lack of a fleet capable of blocking it from the sea. Peter began energetic preparations for the second campaign and, thanks to the actions of the galleys built at the shipyards of Voronezh, he managed to take Azov in 1696.

Peter's transformations were caused by a number of factors: a) Russia's economic and military lag behind the advanced European countries was growing, which posed a threat to national sovereignty; b) the service class, in its socio-political and cultural level, did not meet the requirements of the country's social development, remained a patriarchal social community of the medieval era, which had a vague idea even of its class interests; c) social instability gave rise to the need to strengthen the positions of the ruling class, its mobilization and renewal, as well as the improvement of the state administration apparatus and troops; d) it was necessary to achieve access to the sea.

Tsar Peter, who began to carry out radical transformations, was distinguished by unusual personal qualities. He grew up in Moscow, from where it took more than one week to get to any sea, nevertheless, navigation became his favorite thing. He was brought up in the patriarchal atmosphere of the royal court (albeit not in the Kremlin), but in communication with any person he rejected all sorts of pompous ceremonies, demanded that he be addressed without any titles, just by name. Instead of "commanding", as befitted the king, he got into all the affairs himself - he worked as a carpenter, fired from cannons, worked on a lathe, even pulled out bad teeth from the courtiers.

It would be an exaggeration to say that Peter and his entourage had some kind of clear reform program. But, on the other hand, it is also impossible to call his transformations spontaneous - they had their own logic; some reforms required others, military issues were intertwined with economic ones, changes in the state apparatus required the development of education, and so on.

Chapter 2 I .

The young king strengthened and streamlined the state structure. The Governing Senate and 11 collegiums were created, which replaced the command system of government. In order to combat abuses of power, a system of state control over government institutions was created.

In Russia, a new territorial structure was introduced in the form of provinces, provinces and districts. State power was strictly hierarchical and subordinated directly to the king.

The proclamation in 1721 of Russia as an empire, and himself as emperor, became a natural continuation of the centralized policy and foreign policy successes of Peter I.

In the social sphere, the emperor staked on the nomination of the most capable and talented people. To this end, he adopted the "Table of Ranks" (1722). All civil servants were divided into 14 classes. Promotion depended solely on the activity of a person, and not on his origin.

Peter I actively promoted the development of Russian industry and trade. A large number of new factories and manufactories arose, and existing ones were modernized. Although the development of capitalism in Russia was significantly limited by the existing serfdom.

The emperor adhered to a policy of protectionism, which consisted in protecting the interests of Russian manufacturers. Strong trade relations with European states are being established.

One of the largest acts of Peter I is the foundation of a new capital, St. Petersburg, from scratch. The new city, thanks to increased financial investments and forced settlement, in a fairly short time becomes a developed center with established production and trade.

The ebullient activity of Peter I was expressed in the impulsiveness of his actions. Despite the desire for European ideals, Peter I acted like a typical oriental despot, all of whose orders had to be unquestioningly carried out without discussion. The emperor did not consider human sacrifices if they were needed to achieve his goals.

For all connoisseurs of Russian history, the name of Peter 1 will forever remain associated with the period of reform in almost all spheres of life in Russian society. And one of the most important in this series was the military reform.

Throughout his reign, Peter the Great fought. All his military campaigns were directed against serious opponents - Sweden and Turkey. And in order to wage endless exhausting, and besides, offensive wars, a well-equipped, combat-ready army is needed. Actually, the need to create such an army was the main reason for the military reforms of Peter the Great. The process of transformation was not instantaneous, each stage took place at its own time and was caused by certain events in the course of hostilities.

It cannot be said that the tsar began reforming the army from scratch. Rather, he continued and expanded the military innovations conceived by his father Alexei Mikhailovich.

Military reforms:

1. Reformation of the archery troops

2. Introduction of recruitment duty

3. Changing the system of military training

4. Changes in the organizational structure of the army

5. Rearmament of the army

Chapter 3. Significance of Peter's reforms.

Peter's reignIopened a new period in Russian history. Russia has become a European-isolated state and a member of the European community of nations. Management and jurisprudence, the army and various social strata of the population were reorganized in a Western way. Industry and trade developed rapidly, and great achievements appeared in technical education and science.

Assessing the Petrine reforms and their significance for the further development of the Russian Empire, the following main trends must be taken into account:

Peter's reformsImarked the formation of an absolute monarchy, in contrast to the Western class, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, but on a serf-noble basis;

created by PeterIthe new state not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for the modernization of the country;

in terms of the scale and speed of the reform of PeterIhad no analogues not only in Russian, but at least in European history;

a powerful contradictory imprint was left on them by the features of the previous development of the country, experimental foreign policy conditions and the personality of the king himself;

Building on some of the trends emerging inXVIIcentury in Russia, PeterInot only developed them, but also brought it to a qualitatively higher level in a minimal historical period of time, turning Russia into a powerful state;

the price for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations, and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population;

despite the inconsistency of the personality of Peter and his transformations in national history, his figure has become a symbol of decisive reformism and selfless, sparing neither himself nor others, service to the Russian state. The descendants of PeterI- practically the only one of the kings - rightfully retained the title of the Great granted to him.

First Quarter TransformationsXVIIIcenturies are so grandiose in their consequences that they give grounds to speak of pre-Petrine and post-Petrine Russia. Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in Russian history. Reforms are inseparable from the personality of PeterI- an outstanding commander and statesman.

Chapter 4

Contradictory, explained by the peculiarities of that time and personal qualities, the figure of Peter the Great constantly attracted the attention of the largest writers (M.V. Lomonosov, A.S. Pushkin, A.N. Tolstoy), artists and sculptors (E. Falcone, V.I. Surikov, M.N. Ge, V.A. Serov), theater and cinema figures (V.M. Petrov, N.K. Cherkasova), composers (A.P. Petrova).

How to evaluate Peter's "perestroika"? Relation to PeterIand his reforms - a kind of touchstone that determines the views of historians, publicists, politicians, scientists and cultural figures. What is it - a historical feat of the people or measures that doomed the country to ruin after the reforms of PeterI?

Peter's transformations and their results are extremely contradictory, which is reflected in the works of historians. Most researchers believe that the reforms of PeterIwere of outstanding importance in the history of Russia (K. Valishevsky, S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky, N.I. Kostomarov, E.P. Karpovich, N.N. Molchanov, N.I. Pavlenko, etc.) . On the one hand, the reign of Peter went down in history as a time of brilliant military victories, it was characterized by rapid economic development. It was a period of a sharp breakthrough towards Europe. According to S.F. Platonov, for this purpose, Peter was ready to sacrifice everything, even himself and his loved ones. Everything that went against the good of the state, he was ready to exterminate and destroy as a statesman.

On the other hand, the result of the activities of PeterIsome historians consider the creation of a "regular state", i.e. state bureaucratic in nature, based on surveillance and espionage. Authoritarian rule is being established, the role of the monarch, his influence on all spheres of society and the state is extremely increasing (A.N. Mavrodin, G.V. Vernadsky).

Moreover, researcher Yu.A. Boldyrev, studying the personality of Peter and his reforms, concludes that “Peter's transformations aimed at the Europeanization of Russia did not achieve their goal. The revolutionary nature of Peter turned out to be false, as it was carried out while maintaining the basic principles of a despotic regime, universal enslavement.

The ideal state structure for Peter was a “regular state”, a model similar to a ship, where the captain is the king, his subjects are officers and sailors acting according to the maritime charter. Only such a state, according to Peter, could become an instrument of decisive transformation, the purpose of which is to turn Russia into a great European power. Peter achieved this goal and therefore went down in history as a great reformer. But at what cost were these results achieved?

The repeated increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social performances - the rebellion of the archers in Astrakhan (1705-1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707-1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region were directed personally against PeterIand even not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.

Carrying out public administration reform, PeterIwas guided by the principle of cameralism, i.e. introduction of bureaucracy. In Russia, a cult of institutions has developed, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster.

Desire to catch up with Europe in economic development PeterItried to realize with the help of the formed "manufactory industrialization", i.e. through the mobilization of public funds and the use of labor serfs. The main feature of the development of manufactories was the fulfillment of state, primarily military orders, which freed them from competition, but deprived them of free economic initiative.

The result of the Petrine reforms was the creation in Russia of the foundations of a state-monopoly industry, feudal and militarized. Instead of forcing a civil society with a market economy in Europe, Russia by the end of Peter's reign represented a military-police state with a state-owned monopolized feudal economy.

The achievements of the imperial period were accompanied by deep internal conflicts. The main crisis is ripening in the national psychology. The Europeanization of Russia brought with it new political, religious and social ideas that were adopted by the ruling classes of society before they reached the masses. Accordingly, a split arose between the top and bottom of society, between the intellectuals and the people.

The main psychological support of the Russian state - the Orthodox Church - at the endXVIIcentury was shaken in its foundations and gradually and gradually lost its importance from 1700 until the revolution of 1917. Church reform beganXVIIIcentury meant for the Russians the loss of a spiritual alternative to the state ideology. While in Europe the church, separating from the state, drew closer to the believers, in Russia it moved away from them, became an obedient instrument of power, which was contrary to Russian traditions, spiritual values, and the whole age-old way of life. Naturally, PeterImany contemporaries called the king-antichrist.

There was an aggravation of political and social problems. The abolition of Zemsky Sobors (which removed the people from political power) and the abolition of self-government in 1708 also created political difficulties.

The government acutely felt the weakening of contacts with the people after Peter's reforms. It soon became clear that the majority did not sympathize with the Europeanization program. Carrying out its reforms, the government was forced to act harshly, as Peter the Great did. And also the concept of prohibitions has become familiar. Meanwhile, Western political thought influenced the Europeanized circles of Russian society, absorbing the ideas of political progress and gradually preparing for the fight against absolutism. Thus, Peter's reforms set in motion political forces, which later the government could not control.

In Peter we can see before us the only example of successful and, on the whole, completed reforms in Russia, which determined its further development for two centuries. However, it should be noted that the price of the transformations was prohibitively high: in carrying out them, the tsar did not consider either the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, or national traditions, or the memory of ancestors.

The opinions of historians and researchers were considered above, as a result, we see that opinions about the personality of PeterIare ambiguous. After I got acquainted with the opinions of historians, I decided to conduct a survey in our technical school among students, after studying the topic: “The activities of PeterI". The students were offered a questionnaire (Appendix 1). From the content of this questionnaire, I wanted to find out who the current generation of Peter is considered to beI, as well as to find out which reforms, in their opinion, are the most significant for that period of time. 84 students took part in the survey.

After analyzing the opinion of the students of the Gornozavodsk Polytechnic College, I come to the conclusion that 85% of the respondents consider PeterIreformer, only 7% consider him a tyrant, while 8% indicated that they support both characteristics of Great Peter (the data is given in the diagram, Appendix 2).

In addition, according to the survey, students consider the most important reform to be the military reform, which, according to students, made the army regular, a strong navy was created, it was the military reform with the introduction of military schools that made the army "indestructible" and allowed to win significant victories, including in the Northern War of 1700-1721.

The second most important reform was marked by the church reform, which the students also considered significant for the development of Russia, namely the subordination of the church to the state in order to exclude the influence of the church on state power, state policy, as well as enrichment at the expense of church lands.

And one more, the most important reform, according to students, is a financial or economic reform, which led to the introduction of a single monetary coin - a penny, as well as the introduction of numerous customs fees for the import of imported goods, which supported Russian production, primarily in metallurgy . (Appendix 3).

Conclusion

The transformations carried out by Peter the Great in the state-political, social and cultural spheres are one of the most striking phenomena in Russian history. Completion of the construction of the Russian Empire, begun inXVIIcentury, became the main historical result of Peter's activity. Former Muscovy has become a strong European state. The transformations carried out by Peter served as the basis for the establishment of an absolute monarchy in Russia. All the most important activities of PeterI- military reform, the struggle for access to the seas, the development of industry, public administration, the Europeanization of culture - were outlined long before his reign. Peter only acted more decisively than previous monarchs. The brute force methods of the Europeanization of the country, the countless sacrifices and hardships of life helped to achieve the set goals, but led to the extreme depletion of the forces of Peter's subjects. Among the most difficult consequences of the era of transformations are the extreme enslavement of the peasants, the omnipotence of the bureaucracy, the deepening of the split of Russian society into aliens not only in social status, but also in culture and even in language “tops” and “bottoms”.

Summing up my work, I would agree with the words of A.S. Pushkin "Everything trembled, everything silently obeyed" - this is how he summarized the essence of Peter's nature as a sovereign and a person. Peter was sure that he was doing the right thing, for the benefit of the people and the state. He also sincerely believed that “all good things” come from the monarch, in this case from himself, and therefore his eye should reach everything, penetrate into all ends of the state, into the souls and thoughts of subjects. Yes, he is a tyrant, but is it possible in Russia differently? The history of our state knows the answer to this question, what will be the result when the Russian people get freedom. And in contrast, history knows cases of lightning-fast rises, but in "hedgehogs".

Bibliography

Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. Russian history. Textbook for grade 10. M.: Enlightenment. 1997.

Volobuev O.V., Klokov V.A., Ponomarev M.V., Rogozhkin V.A. Russia and the world. Textbook for general educational institutions. M.: Bustard, 2002.

Derevyanko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. Russian history. Moscow: Prospect Publishing House, 2006.

Zuev M.N., Lavrenov S.Ya. Russian history. Textbook and workshop for open source software. Moscow: Yurayt, 2017.

Novikov S.V. Tutorial. Story. M.: Word. 1999.

Sakharov A.N. Textbook for grade 10. Russian history. M.: Education, 1999.

Chudinov A.V. Story. Textbook for grade 10. Moscow: Academy, 2008.

Shevelev V.N. History for colleges. Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2007.

Annex 1.

QUESTIONNAIRE

on the topic: "The reform activity of Peter the Great."

Briefly describe the activities of PeterI.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

Indicate the three (in your opinion) most significant reforms of PeterI. Explain (briefly) why you think that these reforms are the most significant for the development of the state.

2.1. ______________________________________________________________

2.2. _______________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________;

2.3. _______________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

Historians are divided into two opinions about the personality of PeterI, some argue that he is a great reformer, others that he is a tyrant who did not reckon with people (not only with the population of the state, but also with his relatives and friends) in achieving his goals. What do you think, PeterIreformer or tyrant?

__________________________________________________________________

Russia, 17th century. Worldview, customs and mores, as well as religious beliefs in the state are conservative and unchanged. They seem to be frozen like a fly in amber. And they could have remained this fly for another five thousand years, if ... If an active and active, inquisitive and restless, interested in everything in the world and not afraid of work young man had not come to the helm. Whom we, descendants, call "Peter I". And abroad they call our sovereign none other than “Great”.

Regarding "or".

It seems to me that in the characterization

there should be no “or” for a large-scale personality in cultural and historical terms for all of Russia. Contradictions are good in unambiguous things. Stupid or smart, tall or short, black or white. “Reformer or tyrant” is a fundamentally wrong definition. Reforming something, as well as restoring-repairing, one cannot do without “victims”. To tidy up the walls in the old kitchen, they wash off the old whitewash, peel off the dirty wallpaper. At the end of the repair, everything is fine, bright, clean and new. But do they think so of the remnants of old wallpaper, taken out in the trash?

Perhaps this comparison is too harsh for

global changes that Peter I made in Russian society, but it is quite eloquent. And then, why: "tyrant"? Did he, like the Bolshevik “reformers” of the 20th century, burn, shoot, cut, “nationalize” and execute “enemies of the people”? His "barbering" is nothing compared to genuine tyranny and authoritarianism.

All the reforms carried out by the young, maximalist-minded emperor with such vigor and a thirst for improvement were aimed at “advancing” (as they say now) the country entrusted to him. Raise it to a new level, “bring it to light”, bring it closer to the benefits and achievements of civilization, which he himself had seen enough of from his youth in Europe.

For the most part, the people and the "bearded merchants" grumbled because of external changes, not so important, fundamental. Change of caftan, shortening of beards, introduction of foreign dishes into the diet and holidays into the calendar. That which split the “amber” and let the fly out of “crampedness, but not resentment” into the fresh air.

Serious reforms affecting career advancement, some equalization of the rights of all worthy, smart and skillful people, could not bring anything but real benefits for the cultural and intellectual life of the state.

If earlier “every cricket” not only knew, but also sat, as if glued, on its “pole”, now thousands of people were given the opportunity to find a use for themselves. Not only hereditary carpenters, in the 7th generation, could carpentry. But the peasants, if their will, desire, and also their abilities are real. The same applies to trade, jewelry, shipbuilding, engineering ... anyone, for whatever you take. Is it really worth arguing about the beneficial influence on the development of all the above crafts of Peter's reforms?

Marriages that could combine people of different classes. Is this not useful? This question is, however, more controversial.

In conclusion, I would like to say that Peter I, in my opinion, is neither a tyrant nor a despot. He tried to be fair. And, for the most part, he succeeded.

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Peter the Great was the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. He was enthroned in 1682, when he was 10 years old. Really began to govern Russia in 1689. It was Peter who finally transformed the Muscovite kingdom into the Russian Empire. Under him, Rus' became Russia: a multinational power with access to the southern and northern seas. Peter the Great completely turned the whole life of the country upside down. There was Muscovite Rus, unhurried, unlike its Western neighbors, it became the Russian Empire, the pace of development of which accelerated several times! Gottfried Kneller "Peter I", 1698

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Reforms of Peter I 1. Economic reforms 2. Provincial reform 3. Reform of the state apparatus 4. Finance and budget reform 5. Military reform 6. Transformations in the fleet 8. Reforms in other areas of public life 7. Church reform Lawmaking in the Petrine era

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Lawmaking in the Petrine era The reign of Peter I was characterized by active lawmaking, covering almost all spheres of life of the population. The new laws regulated relations between subjects and the state, the rights and obligations of representatives of certain estates. Government decrees oriented citizens towards rational management, requiring them, for example, to dress leather with lard rather than tar, build furnaces not on the floor, but on the foundation, etc. Whatever place the subjects occupied in the class hierarchy, the king severely and rigorously demanded that they comply with the decrees issued by him. All decrees of Peter I consisted of three parts. In the first part, the king explained to his subjects the reasonableness and usefulness of the introduced norm. For example, the legislator urged harvesting bread with scythes instead of sickles on the grounds that this method is "much more controversial and more profitable that the average worker for ten people will work." The second part of the decree outlined the essence of the norm itself. The third part listed the penalties for violators of the law: beating with a whip (rods), fines of various sizes, confiscation of all or part of property, imprisonment, exile to Siberia, hard labor, etc. The legislation of the time of Peter the Great persistently propagated the idea of ​​the "common good", as well as their concern for the "good of the subjects", for the "good of the whole people". The subjects were persistently instilled with the idea of ​​a state equally caring for the entire population of the country. Back to reforms

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“It is absolutely indisputable that the successes of Peter's army on the battlefields would have been impossible without serious changes in the economy of the then Russia: the victorious weapons of Noteburg, Poltava, Gangut were forged in the forges of the Urals, Tula, Petrovsky factories. There is no doubt that during the reign of Peter in the field of economics, a fundamental reform was carried out, which had far-reaching consequences. In the first quarter of the 18th century, a sharp economic leap took place in Russia. The industrial construction of the Petrine era took place at an unprecedented pace for that time: in 1695-1725, at least two hundred manufactories of various profiles arose, that is, ten times more than there were at the end of the 17th century, and this with an even more impressive growth in production. The most characteristic feature of the economic boom in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century was the decisive role of the autocratic state in the economy, its active and deep penetration into all spheres of economic life. This role was due to many factors. Both ways of developing state entrepreneurship - the activation of old industrial regions and the creation of new ones - are especially clearly seen in the example of metallurgy - the basis of military power. The treasury has invested huge funds in expanding the production of iron, guns, weapons in traditional production areas - in Karelia, the Voronezh-Tambov Territory, in the Center. Here, new factories were built in a short time, old ones were expanded, often taken from those entrepreneurs who were not able to quickly cope with huge orders from the treasury. Actively use the experience of operating enterprises, and relocate the best craftsmen under the jurisdiction of the local administration to a new place - these are the methods of creating new manufactories under Peter the Great. In addition, Peter's residents in Western Europe actively invited foreign mining specialists and metallurgists who willingly traveled to Russia from Germany, England and other countries. A powerful metallurgical base made it possible to expand metalworking production, more precisely, the arms industry. In Tula, famous for its gunsmiths, a large arms factory was founded in 1712, and in 1721 the same one appeared - Sestroretsky. Economic reforms Back to reforms

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The first attempt at cardinal administrative reforms was the provincial reform of 1708-1710. The country was divided into 8 provinces, far from being the same in size (Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Moscow, Kazan, Kiev, Azov and Siberia). At the head of the province were governors-general and governors. Of course, the positions of governors were occupied by especially trusted persons from the tsar's entourage. The head of the province, who concentrated the highest military and civil functions in his hands, had an assistant (vice-governor), chief commandant (in charge of military affairs), chief commissar and chief provisions master (cash and grain fees) and the so-called landrichter ( administered justice). The provinces were originally divided into "counties" with a "commandant" (i.e., in the old voivode) at the head. However, the provincial office clearly could not cope with many counties, and therefore a new, as it were, intermediate administrative unit was soon introduced - the “province”, headed by the chief commandant. In 1713-1714. 3 more provinces appeared (Nizhny Novgorod, Astrakhan and Riga). Since 1715, the provinces began to be divided into provinces (50 in number), and the provinces were no longer divided into counties, but "shares" headed by the landrat (each share had 5536 households). Landrat was an elected person from the nobility, although he was completely subordinate to the highest authority. Some time later, instead of "dols", "districts" appeared, each of which should now have 2,000 households. Note that when checking the results of the first audit by the military administration, another district appeared - the regimental one, where this or that regiment was located, for the maintenance of which the taxes of this district went. In the provinces, the main administrative units were the commandant, the chamberlain, who organized the collection of taxes, and the rent master, who headed the local treasury (rentery). In districts, zemstvo commissars were primarily responsible for collecting taxes and performing police functions. Provincial reform Back to reforms

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The famous Senate was "born" by Peter 1, as if impromptu. Departing for the Prut campaign in February 1711, Peter promulgated a decree: "The ruling Senate was determined to be for our absences, to govern ...". Its composition was small (9 senators), and it was created, as it were, temporarily. In pursuit of the first decree on March 2 came the second with a list of powers (care of justice, the organization of state revenues, general administration, trade and economy). Soon the Senate became the highest judicial and administrative body. At first, the Senate was a collegiate body of 9 senators with equal votes. Communication between the Senate and the provinces was carried out by provincial commissars. Appointments to the Senate, as well as exemptions from presence in it, were made by the king, who was guided by this not by breed, but by the abilities of the candidate for senators. As a result, the dependence of the senator on the king was immeasurably great. This manifested one of the features of the absolute, that is, unlimited monarchy, which was asserting itself in Russia. Almost simultaneously with the Senate, Peter 1 founded a new control and revision institute of the so-called fiscals. It was a whole army of officials who acted in secret and revealed all the unrighteous actions that were detrimental to the state (embezzlement, bribery, violation of the law, etc.). At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal at the Senate. He had 4 fiscals subordinate to him (two from the merchants and two from the nobility). Under provincial governments there were also 4 fiscals, in cities - 1-2 fiscals. Fiscals did not receive a salary, as a reward for their work they were entitled in the first years to half, and then a third of the confiscated property. Fiscals sent all their observations to the Punishment Chamber, from where cases were sent to the Senate. Since 1715, the Senate itself was supervised by a special Senate Auditor General, and since 1721, the headquarters officers of the Guard were in control on a monthly basis. became the most enduring of Peter's innovations. Reform of the state apparatus Back to reforms

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Since the end of the 90s, the restructuring of the monetary system began. By 1704, instead of a primitive monetary system, represented by only one kopek coin made of silver wire and its parts, there was a full-fledged set of silver coins worth one kopek, altyn (3 kopecks), piglet (5 kopecks), hryvnias (10 kopecks). ), half a half (25 kopecks), half a half (50 kopecks) and, finally, the ruble. Instead of silver money (0.5 kopecks) and half coins (0.25 kopecks), they began to issue copper coins of the same denomination. Since 1718, altyns and semi-half pieces began to be made from copper, and since 1723 - patches, which eventually became the smallest copper coin. Minting coins since the end of the XVII century. was accompanied by a decrease in the content of silver and copper in coins. Since 1711, silver coins began to be issued in the 70th test. With the market price of a pood of copper at 6-8 rubles, from 1704 they began to make copper coins worth as much as 20 rubles from a pood. (38th sample), ac 1718 - for 40 rubles. Finally, a gold coin of ruble denomination was put into circulation, and from 1718 it was replaced by a two-ruble note of the 75th test. For 25 years of the XVIII century. "money yards" minted silver coins for 38.4 million rubles, and copper - for 4.3 million rubles. The result of the monetary reform was the creation of a full-fledged monetary system based on the decimal principle and fully satisfying the needs of the economy. The total income of the treasury from the issue of coins amounted to 10.7 million rubles. Thus, the monetary reform decisively contributed to the success of the first, most difficult period of the Northern War. After all, Peter's government did without foreign loans. Meanwhile, military spending in the first period of the war reached 70-80% of the budget. In the early years, the monetary reform also improved the budget. By the end of the second decade of the XVIII century. the monetary regalia no longer gave the same effect, and the huge amount of taxes reached its possible maximum. It was then that the ideas of the “profit-makers” about the transition from household to capitation taxation by direct taxation came into play, which would make it possible to sharply increase the number of taxpayers. In 1718, on November 28, a decree was issued on the census of the entire taxable male population. Since 1722, the verification of the results of the census began - "audit". She gave a result that struck the minds - about 2 million male souls were identified who were not included in the census. Since then, the censuses themselves have been called "revisions". The total number of the taxable population is 5.4 million male souls. They were charged with spending on the army and navy. Finance and budget reform Back to reforms

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The military reform that began in 1698-1699 was caused primarily by the fact that the archery regiments could not cope with the task of defending the country from external and internal enemies. The beginning of the creation of a regular Russian army can be considered November 1699, and the legal basis is the royal decrees of November 8 and 17, which determined the sources for recruiting new regiments. It was assumed that, first of all, the army would be formed from "eager people" - free subjects of various ranks. As a second source for the creation of a regular army, “dacha people” were listed (since 1705 they began to be called recruits). According to the decree, for various estates, the norms for the supply of recruits were determined: from monastic peasants - 1 “given person” from 25 households; from the nobles who were in the public service - 1 person from 30 households. The place for recruiting and completing units, as well as training recruits in military affairs, was the village of Preobrazhenskoye, where a special commission was established - the General Court. The advantage of the new manning system was that it made it possible to prepare a reserve for waging a long bloody war. However, it caused significant damage to the national economy: annually up to 40,000 healthy men aged 15 to 32 were irretrievably “shaved” from various sectors of the economy into recruits. Military reform Back to reforms Transfiguration March (Peter's Anthem of Russia) Click on the picture to watch the video (if you have internet)

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Artillery units were the most important moment in the organization of the new army. The infantry has light mortars, cannons with a “caliber” (i.e., according to the weight of the core) of 3 pounds, grenadier companies have heavy grenades, and howitzers and mortars have the cavalry. In the field artillery by 1725 there were 2620 people. Two large weapons factories in Tula and Sestroretsk, two large gunpowder factories in St. Petersburg and Okhta, as well as a large group of iron-smelting complexes in the center of the country, in the north and in the Urals, fully satisfied the army's need for weapons and ammunition. In a relatively fast time, the state launched the production of uniforms for the army. The army under Peter for the first time had a single form "(infantry - green caftans and black hats, cavalry - blue caftans and black hats). In addition to the field army, a system of military garrisons stationed in the villages was created in the country. In 1725 there were 55 garrison regiments, consisting of soldiers and partly archers, with a total number of 74,127 people.The garrison regiments had powerful artillery units (2295 people).In the garrisons of Russia by 1725, according to I.K. Kirilov, there were 9891 guns and 788 mortars, not counting small guns and howitzers. Russia has never known such a powerful artillery fleet (and in fact, taking into account army artillery, this amounted to at least over 15 thousand guns). The Russian army has become one of the strongest in Europe. shelf

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At the end of the 90s of the XVII century. an impressive Azov fleet was created. With the outbreak of the Northern War, the Baltic fleet also became necessary. In 1702-1704. the construction of ships unfolded in several places at once: on the rivers Syas, Svir, Luga, Volkhov, Izhora. The creation of the Caspian fleet took place already in the 20s of the 18th century. Until that time, Astrakhan had mainly traditional plows and beads. By the beginning of the Caspian campaign of 1722-1723. Russia had about 300 ships. In the first years of the creation of the Russian fleet, in addition to the most difficult economic and technical problems, there were huge difficulties with personnel for the fleet. After all, only at first it was possible to hire 600 foreign sailors (mostly all Slavs) and retrain the army guards and from soldiers to sailors. Since 1705, sets began especially for the fleet. The most important means of creating a strong and efficient army and a powerful navy was the establishment of a system of professional military education. The first military school was the bombarding school under the Preobrazhensky Regiment (1698-1699). In 1701, the first large (for 300 people) artillery school was opened in Moscow. In 1712, an artillery school began to operate in St. Petersburg. In 1721, an artillery school for professional artillerymen was opened there. The first nautical school was organized back in 1698 in Azov. In 1701, a school of "mathematical and navigational" sciences was opened in Moscow, preparing personnel for both the army and the navy. Initially, it was designed for 200, and from 1701 - already for 500 people. In 1715, the St. Petersburg Naval Academy of Officers began to operate. In 1716, the so-called midshipman company was organized. Of course, business trips to study in the countries of Western Europe (to Holland, France, Italy and other states) were also practiced. Ultimately, by the 1920s, Russia could fully provide both the army and the navy with its cadres of naval, infantry, artillery and engineering officers. In 1714, all foreign officers who did not pass the exam were dismissed from service. In 1720, the Military Collegium forbade the recruitment of officers from other states. True, in 1722 it was allowed to be accepted into the service only on the condition “that they should remain here after death.” Naval reforms Back to reforms

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A prominent place among the transformations of Peter is occupied by the Spiritual Reform. Peter knew perfectly well the history of his father's struggle for power with Patriarch Nikon, he also knew the attitude of the Clergy to his transformations. At that time Adrian was the patriarch in Russia. Relations between Peter and the patriarch were clearly strained. Peter perfectly understood the desire of the church to subjugate secular power to itself - this determined the activities that were carried out in this area. Patriarch Andrian died in 1700, but the tsar was in no hurry to elect a new patriarch. The leadership of the affairs of the church was transferred to the Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky, he was declared the guardian of the patriarchal throne. Although Peter did not see Yavorsky as an active supporter, at least Yavorsky did not vehemently oppose Peter's policy. On the road of Peter there was another problem - schismatics. “Peter had to start a fight against schismatics. The schismatics, owning great wealth, refused to take part in common duties: to enter the service, military or civil. Peter found a solution to this issue - he overlaid them with a double tax. The schismatics refused to pay - a struggle broke out. Raskolnikov was executed, exiled or flogged. Peter sought to protect himself from the influence of the church, in this regard, he begins to limit the rights of the church and its head: a council of bishops was created, which met periodically in Moscow, and then, in 1711, after the creation of the Synod, the head of the church lost the finishing touches of independence. Thus, the church was completely subordinate to the state. But the king was well aware that the subordination of the church to a simple governing body is impossible. And in 1721 the Holy Synod was created, which was in charge of the affairs of the church. “The Synod was put on the same rank as the Senate, above all other collegiums and administrative bodies. The structure of the Synod was no different from the structure of any collegium. The Synod consisted of 12 people. Thus, Peter eliminated the threat of an attempt by the spiritual authorities on the secular and put the church at the service of the state. From now on, the church was part of the support on which the absolute monarchy stood. Church Reform Back to Reforms

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The reforms of Peter the Great concerned various spheres of society. In 1699, Peter issued a decree to change the calendar. Previously, the chronology was conducted according to the Byzantine-style calendar: the New Year began on September 1. Since 1699, the New Year was supposed to begin on January 1, according to the European model. This reform caused great discontent, because. earlier, the chronology was conducted from the creation of the world, and in terms of a new way, 1700 should have come only after 8 years. In the new year 1700, a decree was issued on the establishment of the first pharmacies in Moscow; another decree forbade the carrying of knives under fear of a whip or exile. In 1701, the liberal spirit of the new reign was expressed in a series of decrees: it was forbidden to fall on one's knees when the sovereign appeared; bare your head in winter, passing by the palace. In 1702, the turn of reforming family life came: attempts were made to provide the marriage union with stronger moral guarantees. After visiting France, Peter issues a decree on hospitality. The position of women in society is changing radically. Peter tried to introduce her to modern secular life, following the example of the West, to provide the highest circles with new forms of treatment. In 1710, Peter I approved a sample of the "civil" alphabet, having revised the West Cyrillic alphabet for this. Reforms in other areas of public life. Back to reforms

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Consequences of the reforms

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Characteristics of Peter

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Sayings of Peter "Know about Peter that life is not dear to him, if only Russia would live in bliss and glory, for your well-being." “With other European peoples, it is possible to achieve the goal in philanthropic ways, but not so with the Russians: if I had not used strictness, I would not have owned the Russian state for a long time and would never have made it what it is now. I'm not dealing with people, but with animals that I want to transform into people."

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Virtual mini survey of famous personalities about the era of Peter I

The era of Peter the Great and his transformations are very contradictory and ambiguous. It is no coincidence that the points of view of many prominent figures of science and art about itself and its transformations are so polar opposite. Let's try to conduct an imaginary mini-survey of famous historians, writers, politicians and find out their opinions about this difficult time for Russia. Let's ask them just two questions: "What do you think about Peter I?" and "How do you assess its transformation in Russia?"

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Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov Great Russian scientist (1711 - 1765) I sing the wise Russian, Hero That the cities are new, regiments and fleets are building, From the most tender years he waged war with malice, Passing through fears, exalted his country, Humbled the villains inside and trampled on the opposite, Hand and with his mind he overthrew the impudent and deceitful, And the whole world was surprised by his deeds.

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Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, writer (1766 - 1826) “The ardent monarch with a heated imagination, having seen Europe, wanted to make Russia - Holland. We became citizens of the world, but ceased to be, in some cases, citizens of Russia.”

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Belinsky Vissarion Grigoryevich (1811 - 1848) Revolutionary democrat, influential critic. “Peter the Great is the greatest phenomenon not only in our history, but also in the history of all mankind; he is a deity who called us to life, breathed a living soul into the colossal body of ancient Russia, but plunged into mortal slumber.

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Solovyov Sergey Mikhailovich (1820 - 1879) - historian, one of the founders of Russian historiography. “The need to move on a new path was realized ... the people rose and gathered on the road; waited for the leader, and the leader appeared. "Peter I is the greatest historical figure, who most fully embodied the spirit of the people."

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Ivan Sergeevich Aksakov (1823 -1886) - Publicist, publisher, editor, Slavophile. "Peter I is the destroyer of Russian national foundations, and his reforms were a brilliant mistake."

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Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky - historian, student of Solovyov. (1841 -1911) “The reform carried out by Peter the Great did not have as its direct goal to rebuild either the political, social or moral order, but was limited to the desire to arm the Russian state and people with ready-made Western European means, mental and material .... The resistance of the people forced Peter to use violent measures, which created the impression of a revolution. In fact, Peter's activity was more of a shock than a coup."

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Sociological survey of 2008. Sociologists of the Public Opinion Foundation (FOM) offered the respondents a choice of 500 names, according to historians, the great people of Russia. FOM, with the help of a nationwide study, determined which of them are known by at least half of the living Russians. Then the survey participants rated the remaining persons. Sociologists note that the period of youthful years of the participants in the study also depended on which of the historical figures he considers the most significant in the history of Russia. All respondents (6 thousand people each during the two stages of the study) were divided into 8 groups with an age interval of 7 years. Moreover, the conditional names of the generations (from “Stalinist” to “Putinist”) reflect the era in which the main stage of the formation of their personality took place (from 10 to 17 years). Stalinist generation: before 1936 Khrushchev generation: born 1936-43 Gagarin generation: 1944-51 Brezhnev generation: 1952-59 Suslov generation: born 1960-67 Gorbachev generation born in 1968-74 Yeltsin generation: 1975-82 Putin's generation: 1983-90 The first three of the most significant historical characters remain unchanged - these are Peter I, Stalin and Lenin. According to the FOM, these three historical figures lead by a wide margin among representatives of all ages. For those born under Stalin (the “Stalinist”, “Khrushchevian” and “Gagarinian” generations), Stalin will certainly come first. For the "Suslov" generation, all three figures are equivalent, although Lenin is in the lead by a small margin. But starting from the "Gorbachev" generation, the first Russian emperor Peter I comes to the leading positions in Russian history.

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The project began with the fact that the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences determined the initial list, which included 500 names of the most worthy representatives of our past. The purpose of the first stage was to find out about which of the characters at least half of the Russians know about and therefore it is possible to ask more detailed questions about them regarding their role in history. At the first stage, 185 figures were selected, which are known to more than half of the respondents. The purpose of the second stage was to select 50 characters who, according to the Russians, left the most significant, and it does not matter - positive or negative - mark in the history of our country. During each stage, 6,000 respondents were interviewed at the place of residence in a sample representing the population of the Russian Federation. In 2008, the Rossiya TV channel, Mayak radio, the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Public Opinion Foundation launched the Name of Russia joint project. As part of the “Name of Russia” project, the Foundation was tasked with finding out which of the 500 personalities named by historians Russians consider the most significant in terms of the historical fate of our country. To solve this problem, two stages of research were carried out. Project "Name of Russia"

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For two and a half centuries, historians, philosophers, and writers have been arguing about the significance of Peter's transformations. Indeed, they can be evaluated in different ways. It all depends on what is considered useful for Russia and what is harmful, what is the main and what is secondary. But everyone agrees on one thing: the Petrine reforms were the most important stage in the history of Russia, thanks to which everything can be divided into pre-Petrine and post-Petrine eras. The famous historian Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov, who, perhaps, was better able to understand both the personality of Peter and his work, wrote: “The difference in views ... came from the enormity of the deed accomplished by Peter, the lasting influence of this deed; the more significant a phenomenon, the more divergent views and opinions it generates, and the more they talk about it, the more they feel its influence on themselves. Conclusion

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1. Encyclopedia for children "History of Russia" Moscow "Avanta +" 1995 2. "Heroes of Russian history" White City Moscow 2005 3. Vladimir Solovyov "History of Russia for children and adults" Moscow 2003 4. Illustrated encyclopedia "History of Russia 18-20 centuries." Moscow Olma-Press Education 2004 5. Natalya Mayorova Russian History White City Moscow 2005 6 Results of sociological surveys. (Internet, "Arguments and Facts" newspaper, July 24, 2008) 7. The following music from the era of Peter the Great was used in the presentation: - Kant in honor of the Poltava victory "Orly Russian" by an unknown composer of the 18th century. (performed by the State Republican Academic Choir) - Kant on the conclusion of the Treaty of Nishtad (1721) by an unknown composer of the 18th century. (performed by the male group of the Moscow Chamber Choir) Sources http://www.bibliotekar.ru/polk Internet: http://ru.youtube.com/watch?v=t1VMz-mXPM4 http://www.nameofrussia.ru/video .html?id=3222 http://www.xserver.ru/user/refpp/3.shtml http://www.ref.by/refs/33/7380/1.html http://ru.youtube. com/watch?v=vIIT0WTe0nw http://www.nameofrussia.ru/

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