Basic lecture notes on the discipline “Biology. Basic notes for biology lessons Basic notes for general biology

Basic notes for the “Cells and Tissues” lesson block.

Basic summary for the lesson block “Organs and organ systems.”

Basic notes for the section “Life activity of organisms”.

Note: In addition to control over blocks of lessons, ongoing control is carried out in various forms and techniques at the discretion of the teacher and in relation to the status of the class. Diagnostics based on the use of the supporting notes must be carried out. Methods: survey, interview, control, etc. A lesson plan is attached to the planning

Group I

Basic summary for students’ independent work on the topic: “Fragmentation.”

Task No. 1. Read the supporting summary.

A few hours after fertilization, the first stage of embryo development, called cleavage, begins. The fertilized egg - the zygote - begins to divide through mitosis. The first division occurs in the vertical plane, and the zygote divides into two identical cells called blastomeres. The blastomeres do not separate, but divide again, and 4 cells are formed. The third division occurs in the horizontal plane, and from four, 8 blastomeres are formed. Further, longitudinal and transverse divisions replace each other, and more and more blastomeres appear. Divisions occur very quickly, blastomeres do not grow, and even - as successive divisions - decrease in size. Gradually, the blastomeres are arranged in one layer and form a hollow ball - a blastula. The cavity inside the blastula is called the blastocoel.

Features of the stage

Schematic drawing

Create a cluster.

Clusters -

Group II

Basic summary for students’ independent work on the topic: “Gastrulation.”

Soon after the formation of the blastula, the next stage of embryo development begins - gastrulation. During the formation of the gastrula, mitotic cell divisions continue and significant changes occur in the structure of the embryo. The most common way of gastrula formation is by invagination into a section of the blastula wall. When a gastrula is formed, cells divide by mitosis very quickly and their number increases sharply. Unlike the blastula, the gastrula is a two-layered ball, the outer layer of cells is called the ectoderm. The inner layer of the gastrula, lining its cavity, is called endoderm. The cavity inside the gastrula is called the primary gut, and the opening that leads into it is called the primary mouth.

Task No. 2. Fill out the table “Stages of Embryogenesis.”

Features of the stage

Schematic drawing

Create a cluster.

Instructions for creating a cluster.

Clusters - These are graphic systematizers that show several different types of connections between objects or phenomena. The word (topic, problem) is written in the center of the sheet. Next, words or sentences that come to mind in connection with this topic are written around this word.

Group III

Basic summary for students’ independent work on the topic: “Organogenesis.”

Task No. 1. Read the supporting summary.

Cell division and movement continue at the next stage of embryo development - organogenesis. From the cells located on the border between the ecto- and endoderm, the middle germ layer, or mesoderm, develops. At the neurula stage, the formation of organs and tissues begins. From the ectoderm, the development of the neural plate and then the neural tube begins. From it the brain and spinal cord subsequently develop. The remaining ectoderm gives rise to the outer layer of skin, the organs of vision, hearing and smell. Endoderm cells form a tube - the future intestine, the outgrowths of which subsequently turn into the liver, pancreas and lungs. The mesoderm gives rise to the notochord, muscles, kidneys, cartilage and bone skeleton, as well as the cardiovascular and reproductive systems.

Task No. 2. Fill out the table “Stages of Embryogenesis.”

Features of the stage

Schematic drawing

Create a cluster.

Instructions for creating a cluster.

Clusters - These are graphic systematizers that show several different types of connections between objects or phenomena. The word (topic, problem) is written in the center of the sheet. Next, words or sentences that come to mind in connection with this topic are written around this word.

Basic notes for the “Cells and Tissues” lesson block.

Basic summary for the lesson block “Organs and organ systems.”

Basic notes for the section “Life activity of organisms”.

Note: In addition to control over blocks of lessons, ongoing control is carried out in various forms and techniques at the discretion of the teacher and in relation to the status of the class. Diagnostics based on the use of the supporting notes must be carried out. Methods: survey, interview, control, etc. A lesson plan is attached to the planning

The expediency of using reference notes is beyond doubt, since it is an integral part of the technology of intensification of learning based on schematic and symbolic models of educational material, proposed by V.F. Shatalov.

Visualization of educational material due to the illustrative nature of OK is especially important now that the younger generation is defined as the “moving picture” generation. At the same time, all students experience a lack of color and graphic sensations in the lesson, and this is fraught with a decrease in the level of perception of educational material.

OC develops in schoolchildren such skills as the ability to focus a problem, highlight goals, set priorities, collect and organize information, remember it, analyze, evaluate and present.

However, a serious attempt to provide the attention of practicing teachers with complete sets of OKs, adapted to modern textbooks and programs, has not been made since 1997, when the Prosveshcheniye publishing house published the collection “Active forms and methods of teaching biology” (compiled by L.V. Rebrova and E.V. Prokhorova), which united the OK of several teams of authors in all areas of biology.

This manual partially fills the gap, because includes OK in the course of zoology (biology - grade 7).

It consists of 19 OKs for the main systematic groups of animals studied at school. Each abstract has a detailed annotation

Each teacher has the right to independently choose the trajectory of using notes. This may be an explanation of new material (one-time or step-by-step), or it may be a generalization of the entire topic covered. For some limited OCs, it is possible to combine them into larger modules (for example, OC Nos. 15 – 19, i.e. Type Chordata: classes Cartilaginous and Bony fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals) with subsequent analysis of evolutionary transformations of various organ systems . A retrospective of such OCs within the framework of a general module creates all the conditions for students’ project activities (in class or as homework) to create a final creative OC.

The author considers the use of OK to prepare graduates for the Unified State Exam to be relevant and timely. Effectively performing the function of reference material, OK provides the opportunity not only to save global time, but also, due to the mnemonic laws by which it was created, it very clearly and reliably records this material in memory.

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OK No. 1. Introduction to the subject

OK consists of four parts or blocks.

First block made in the form of a cylinder with a reamer. The central part of the cylinder is occupied by the letter AND - animals. The cylinder itself is divided into three segments, which house the scientific disciplines that study animals. First segment – ​​Ecology , explores the relationships between animals and their environment. In summary, it is, as it were, the basis for the entire cycle of zoological sciences, because It is the environment that determines those morphophysiological and other characteristics of animals, which in the end will determine their various systematic positions. Second block – group of zoological disciplines: morphology animals (studies structure), physiology animals (studies life processes), cytology (studies the structure of cells). Third cylinder segment contains information about taxonomy animals. On the turn of the cylinder there are research objects of scientific disciplines from segments 1 and 2.

Second block starts with the word Kinds, located on the development of the cylinder, its main part is concentrated in the arrow or around it. This block examines the taxonomy of animals in more detail:

1. basic and intermediate(above-/below-) taxa;
2. current state of taxonomy ( 23 type of invertebrate animals+ 1 phylum Chordata, studied as part of the school curriculum - 11 ) ;
3. scientists who laid the foundations of systematics as a science (Carl Linnaeus and A. V. Ivanov);

Third block is located under the arrow in a stylized piece of paper, but it is advisable to begin examining this block also from the development of the cylinder: from the cellular structure. It contains information about the similarities and main differences between animal organisms and plants. However, the information is encrypted in(+) and (-) and involves independent work by students.

Fourth block is located above the cylinder and begins with the word ZOO (Zoology). The block is devoted to the importance of animals and the protection of the animal world.

As can be seen from the OK structure, not a single block is strictly isolated, they are all interconnected. This has a great biological meaning: animals cannot be considered on their own, in isolation from their environment; the structure depends on the systematic position.

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OK No. 2. Protozoa

Protozoa include animals consisting of one or more cells. Each cell of them is an independent organism, even if they are united in a colony (The simplest But! Not 1st grade)

It is now known about 70 thousand species, combined into 7 types.

The school curriculum covers:

1. type Sarcoflagellates (Rhizomes + Flagellates);
2. ciliate type;
3. phylum Sporozoans.

Rhizomes include various amoebas, as well as radiolarians and sunfishes. The structure is discussed using an exampleamoeba vulgaris(pseudopods, digestive food and juice vacuoles, undigested food remains are released everywhere ).

Flagellates are considered using an example euglena green , which is often attributed not to and animals, but to plant flagellates due to the ability to photosynthesis. Also being studied colonial example forms Volvox.

Type of Ciliates presentedciliates slipper. Students' attention is drawn to the features of its structure (including the presence cell mouth and cell pharynx, powder, large kernel and small kernel, as well as numerous eyelashes).

Meaning of Protozoa:formation of sedimentary rocks(chalk, limestone); are causative agents of various diseases.

The graphic construction of the summary is determined by the types of animals being studied + a block according to the value of Protozoa.

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OK No. 3. Type Coelenterates

The phylum Coelenterates are multicellular animals that haveradial symmetry.In OK, the central place is occupied by a stylized image of freshwater hydra, which is a typical representative of coelenterates. These animals got their name because they have a digestive system ( intestinal) cavity where food digestion occurs. The body of the hydra consists of two layers cells, between which there is a gelatinous non-cellular substance. The outer layer contains the musculocutaneous KM, nervous N, stinging SC and reproductive (gametes) cells; the inner layer consists of digestive ( Pish) cells. Hydra has the property regeneration (recovery of lost parts); it is capable of perceiving irritation from the environment, transmitting excitations from this irritation through nerve cells and responding to it with the help of muscle cells with a certain action ( reflex ). Reproduces asexually(budding) and sexual (sperm ♂ fuses with egg ♀).

The second block is OK, separated from the central part by a horizontal strip. Here we consider the variety of types using the example jellyfish, sea ​​anemones and corals. "Ear" jellyfish contains information about her ability to predict an approaching storm ( tsunami ). Anemones are interestingsymbiosis with hermit crab, and corals with their ability to form reefs and entire islands - atolls

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OK No. 4. Type Flatworms

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OK No. 5 Type Roundworms.

Nematodes, like the entire phylum Roundworms, are characterized by the following general features (see arrows from Nematodes).

1. Availability of primary body cavities . Its main function is transport. Transport of nutrients and metabolic products occurs faster through the body cavity than through the parenchyma, which speeds up metabolism.
2. Body shape: round in diameter, which is reflected in the name of the type.
3. Covers, as a rule, have cuticle.
4. The muscles are represented only by a layer longitudinal muscles or individual muscle in bunches in small forms.
5. The digestive system begins mouth new hole. The intestine has three sections. There is an anal O hole.
6. Most species dioecious.

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OK No. 6. Type Annelids

OK consists of three parts: on the silhouette the earthworm and around it there is information about the external structure, size and importance of earthworms in soil formation.

The second block talks about the internal structure of the rings:

1. Metameric structure;
2. Skin-muscle bag - KMM
3. Presence of coelom . Internal environment of the body(VSO) has permanence(const) and provides transport of substances, support function, it formssexual products.
4. Graphic representation of the digestive system. BJU – nutrients enter the blood, which moves through the vessels. Circulatory system - closed.
5. The decomposition product is uric acid , which saves water
6. Nervous system (NS) represented by the ventral nerve cord, the sense organs are considered(OC)
7. Most rings- hermaphrodites
8. Earthworms are characterized by a high degree of regeneration

Third block OK contains information on the taxonomy of annelids:polychaetes, oligochaetes and leeches,as well as their meaning.

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OK No. 7. Type Shellfish

Shellfish – soft-bodied animals, the structural feature of which is the presence shells, performing a protective function. The shell substance is secreted by cells mantle formed by the dorsal fold of skin.

Mollusks have a muscular body, on which they distinguish head (not in bivalves), torso and leg.

The organs of mollusks are united into systems: digestive food (radula or terka - a muscular tongue with chitinous teeth), breathing room, blood enorrhoea (unclosed, three-chambered heart - 1 ventricle, 2 atria), nervous (varies in degree of complexity, just like the senses).

The OK also contains information about the main classes of mollusks:chitons, gastropods, cephalopods, bivalves.

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OK No. 8 Type Arthropods. Class Crustaceans

The OK displays material about the general characteristics of the type Arthropods and details about the habitat, external and internal structure of crayfish, the diversity and importance of crustaceans in nature.

The crayfish body is divided into two sections: massive cephalothorax and segmented abdomen ; on the cephalothorax there are organs of touch, smell, vision, oral organs andfive pairs of walking legs(including claws ); the abdomen has swimming legs and a caudal fin.

Internal structure of cancerhas a number of features:

1. the stomach is divided into two parts , and the digestion of nutrients occurs in food to the digestive gland;
2. open circulatory system;
3. crayfish breathes through gills;
4. the excretory system is represented by a pair green glands;
5. the nervous system is presented, as in ringlets, ventral nerve cord, sensory organs : long antennae - organs of touch, short antennae - organs of smell, organs of vision - complex mosaic eyes;
6. reproduces by spawning eggs.

In the unit on the diversity and significance of crustaceans in nature, the teacher is given the right to choose material and place the main emphasis.

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OK No. 9. Phylum Arthropods. Class Arachnida

OK contains information about the structure and lifestyle of arachnids using the example of the cross spider: the body of the spider is divided into cephalothorax (there are 4 pairs of simple eyes, mouthparts with excretory ducts of poisonous glands,four pairs of walking legs) And abdomen with arachnoid warts, into which the arachnoid glands open). Spider builds catching net , with the help of which it obtains food.External digestion. Breathes atmospheric air usingpulmonary sacs and trachea.Nervous system(NS) nodal type. Observed sexual dimorphism, and females are much larger and more aggressive than males. Eggs are laid in cocoon.

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OK No. 10. Phylum Arthropods. Class Insects

OK introduces the features of the external and internal structure of insects.The most numerousclass of animals found everywhere. Last name of the French scientist Jean Henri Fabre allows the teacher to attract students' attention to the development of entomology as a science.

External structure of insects:

1. the body is clearly divided intohead, chest and abdomen;
2. on the head - sensory organs:compound eyes, antennae, on the lower lip - palps and complex oral apparatus (upper lip, upper and lower jaws, lower lip);
3. on the chest – 3 pairs of legs ; folds of chitinous cover in flying insects form wings (two pairs – may be different);
4. on articulated abdomen spiracles are located leading to the trachea; the last segment may have a stinger, ovipositor or breathing tube(3).

Internal structure of insects:

1. structure oral apparatusdetermined by the type of food;
2. circulatory system open; The main function of blood (hemolymph) is the transport of substances(BJU),
3. breathing - through the trachea;
4. toxic decay products collect in the Malpighian vessels(MS), and then enter the intestine or are deposited in fat body (it may also store a supply of nutrients);
5. nervous system (NS) and sensory organs (OS) achieve high development for invertebrates.

Reproduction and development:Dioecious (♀♂). Development can be indirect (with metamorphosis) – Chafer and straight (without metamorphosis) locusts

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OK No. 11. Systematics of insects (orders: Beetles - Coleoptera, Diptera, Butterflies - Lepidoptera)

The OK consists of 3 blocks, each containing information about the corresponding unit.

The taxonomy of insects is based on various characteristics - students’ attention is focused on the type of oral apparatus ( RA ), number and types of wings, as well as type of development. K – wings; NadK - elytra; F – ground beetle.

For each order, examples of the most important representatives are given. Their number can be increased and supplemented at the discretion of the teacher.

In relation to the order of Butterflies, attention is drawn to the silkworm and the history of its domestication.

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OK No. 12. Social insects

OK talks about social insects of the order Hymenoptera.

Let's look in more detail at bee honey-bearing. Let's look at its structure"families", structure and “professions” of the worker bee, beekeeping products. Last name is given in OKPeter Ivanovich Prokopovich(1775 – 1850), famous Russian beekeeper, inventor of the frame hive (1814).

The phrase “Mind? Instinct!" The teacher, with the help of OK, poses a problem to the students, which they have to solve in the form of homework or in class.

The lower block contains information about other Hymenoptera, the emphasis is shifted towards information about ants , the structure of their anthill (the above-ground area is smaller than the area of ​​the underground part).Marikovsky Pavel Iustinovich- a famous Russian entomologist who studied ants. Regarding other hymenoptera, OK leaves the initiative in their study to the teacher, however, it is necessary to draw students’ attention toBSB is a biological control methodwith agricultural pests involving insects of this order (riders).

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OK No. 13. Type Echinoderms

To the phylum of echinoderms, numbering more 6500 species includestarfish, sea urchins, brittle stars, sea lilies and sea cucumbers.

Body of echinoderm, length from 5 mm to 5 m, has radial (radial)symmetry, calcareous skeleton. All echinoderms havewater-vascular system, which is used to:movement, transport of substances, breath .

Usually dioecious often development with transformation. They have a high ability to regeneration.

A separate block in the OK contains information about the importance of echinoderms (starfish crown of thorns , by eating coral, poses a serious threat to the Great Barrier Reef; related to holothurians sea ​​cucumbers Even a delicacy is considered edible).

OK 13

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OK No. 14. Type Chordata

The phylum Chordata includes animals with an internal skeleton, which is represented by a strong axial rod– chord.

Higher chordates -fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammalsin OK they are arranged in order of their complexity.

Discussed in detail lancelet , belonging to the lower chordates. Hissize, habitat and lifestyle.

The structure of the lancelet already contains features characteristic of all chordates:

1. muscles in the form of longitudinal muscle bands located one on the right and left on the sides of the body;
2. mouth tentaclesform a lattice that prevents large particles from entering the pharyngeal cavity; behind the pharynx follows the intestines;
3. oxygen breathing, dissolved in water through gills, to which water enters throughgill slits (over 100);
4. closed circulatory system; no heart, two large blood vessels (dorsal and ventral);
5. excretory system - protonephridia;
6. nervous system (NS) in the form of a neural tube, the brain is not differentiated, the sense organs are very poorly developed.

A. O. Kovalevsky(1840 – 1901) Russian biologist, through studies of the embryonic development of lower vertebrates (lancelet) and invertebrates, showed the common patterns of development of all animals.

OK 14

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OK No. 15 Superclass Pisces

The superclass Pisces appeared 400 million years ago and includes 20 thousand species ; consists of 2 classes:cartilaginous and bonefish. Cartilaginous fish include sharks, rays, chimeras . The bony fish class accounts for 96% of all species diversity.

External structure of fish.

Most fish have a streamlined body that is coveredscales and mucus. Fins 2 types:

1. doubles (thoracic, abdominal) and

1. unpaired (dorsal, caudal, anal).

Color: the back is darker, the belly is light.

Internal structure of fish.

The skeleton is represented a lot numerical dice. MusclesZ-shaped, trunk.

Breathing using gills (2 pairs, 4 full arcs and 1 a row of rudimentary petals - the filtering apparatus). Gas exchange due to the movement of gill covers.

Circulatory system is closed, consists of a 2-chambered heart (atrium and ventricle)and vessels. In the heart there is venous blood.

Digestive systemhas a standard building plan with minor variations. Well developed liver. Most bony fish are characterized byswim bladder.

Excretory systemrepresented by longribbon-shaped buds.

Nervous system and sensory organs.The brain consists of five departments: anterior, intermediate, middle, oblongata and cerebellum. The behavior of fish reveals unconditional and conditional reflexes. The sense organs are traditional 5: taste (taste buds are located not only in the oral cavity, but also in many parts of the body), vision (eyes), touch (nerve endings on the skin and fins), sense of smell (olfactory bulbs), hearing (only the inner ear, located in the skull). The lateral line, a characteristic organ for fish, perceives water vibrations (6th sense).

Reproduction and development of fish.Dioecious animals. Spawning – spawning of reproductive products by fish – mature eggs and milt, followed by fertilization. The amount of caviar is determined by caring for the offspring (a lot caviar – lack of care, e.g. cod ; little caviar likethreespine stickleback- construction of a nest by a male with subsequent care of both eggs and fry).

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OK No. 16. Phylum Chordata. Class Amphibians

The class of amphibians, or amphibians, includes animals adapted to life both on land and in water. They appeared 350 million years ago from ancient lobe-finned fish.

The silhouette of a frog is compositionally the block where the basic information about the external and internal structure is located:

1. on the head there are a pair of nostrils for breathing atmospheric air, a pair of eyes protected by eyelids. In addition to the inner ear, amphibians have a developed middle ear, delimited from the environment by the eardrum;
2. Compared to fish, amphibians progressively develop a tongue, and, having its own muscles, takes part in capturing food;
3. respiratory organs - lungs and skin;
4. two circles of blood circulation: large and small (pulmonary);
5. the heart is three-chambered (two atria, one ventricle). Since arterial blood mixes with venous blood in the ventricle, amphibians are cold-blooded (poikilothermic) animals;
6. the nervous system is characterized by greater development of the anterior part of the brain (completely divided into two hemispheres, the number of nerve cells increases, but gray matter is still present only in the deep layers of the roof and is absent on its surface;
7. amphibians are dioecious animals, development occurs with metamorphosis (in tailless animals the larva is a tadpole);
8. The organs of locomotion are the front and hind limbs of the five-fingered type.

The taxonomy of amphibians in OK is presented in the form of a crossword puzzle (5 - tailless amphibians, 4 - tailed amphibians).

The main reasons for the decline in the number of amphibians: drainage of swamps and pollution of the habitat.

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OK No. 17. Phylum Chordata. Class Reptiles (Reptiles)

The reptile class is considered using the sand lizard as an example.

1. Unlike amphibians, reptiles have a more complex skeleton (a more mobile neck - 8 vertebrae, the chest is formed by real ribs).
2. The skin helps conserve moisture (horny scales – protection against water loss).
3. The lungs are more differentiated (have a cellular structure). The mechanism of inhalation and exhalation is associated with changes in the volume of the chest.
4. The heart is three-chambered, however, the ventricle is divided into two halves by an incomplete septum (crocodiles have a 4-chambered heart). However, complete separation of arterial and venous blood does not occur, so reptiles are also poikilothermic animals.
5. Internal fertilization, the development of the embryo, occurs in the egg, which is an important adaptation to further distancing from water.

The OK ends with the taxonomy of reptiles.

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OK No. 18. Phylum Chordata. Bird class.

OK consists of two blocks: First block : in the silhouette of a bird - structural features and adaptability to flight; second block – seasonal phenomena in the life of birds.

Streamlined body shape, feather cover, skeleton is light but strong, “special” bones (fork, keel). Instead of heavy jaws with teeth, there is a light horny beak. Digestion is fast, the stomach is two-chambered, and there are pebbles in the muscular section. The excretion product is uric acid. Double breathing due to air sacs. Four-chambered heart, constant body temperature (homeothermic). In the brain, the cerebellum, visual thalamus of the midbrain, and forebrain are highly developed. When breeding, birds lay eggs gradually, in small quantities.

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OK No. 19. Phylum Chordata. Class Mammals.

Mammals - the most highly organized vertebrate animals that inhabited all environments a habitat. The species composition is more than 4 thousand species. The most ancient and primitive are primal beasts (single-treme) and marsupials Placental are distinguished by a higher organization, including in embryonic development and care of offspring (placenta, uterus, milk).

The appearance and size are varied, but there are common structural features:

1. hairline ( awn – protection, undercoat– thermoregulation, vibrissae - organs of touch); change - molting;
2. skin contains various glands, subcutaneous muscles;
3. on the head - ears, eyes with eyelashes, lips;
4. teeth are different ( incisors, canines, molars);
5. spine consists of sections (cervical - 7 vertebrae, thoracic - 12 – 15, lumbar – 2 – 9, sacrum – 4 fused, tail – the number of vertebrae is different);
6. cellular structure of the lungs, breathing not only due to the work of the ribs, but also due to diaphragms;
7. four-chambered heart;
8. high developmentbrain (cerebral cortex, sulci, gyri - increase in area S)defines complex behavior.

It is advisable to draw students' attention to the problem of animal protection (Red Book, green pages - restored numbers, for example bison, black pages - extinct animals, for example Steller's cow).

Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Maritime and River Transport

Pechora River School - branch of the Federal Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"GUMRF named after Admiral S. O. Makarov"

METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

BIOLOGY LESSONS

ON THE TOPIC "EVOLUTIONARY TEACHING"

(using reference signal method)

Pechora

2013

Subject (cycle) commission of general technical disciplines of the Pechora River School

I APPROVED

Chairman of the Commission

Stakhiryak E.I.

"____"________________ 2013

Deputy Director of Academic Affairs

Pets E.E.

"_____"________________2013

Explanatory note.

Being a general biological science, evolutionary teaching allows us to understand and comprehend as a whole the entire diversity of life forms that arose in the process of evolution in the wild and created by man. This is the most fundamental theoretical generalization of modern biology. The biological picture of the world is associated with the work of many outstanding personalities, from antiquity to the present day. The result of their work was the creation of an evolutionary doctrine that explains the conditions, causes and mechanisms of the historical development of life on the planet.

Ideas about the development of living nature

and periods

Idea

Representatives

Period of ancient philosophers

The idea of ​​unity and development of living nature

Empidocles, Democritus, Hippocrates, Aristotle, etc.

Creationism – metaphysical worldview (Middle Ages)

The idea of ​​the constancy of the unknown and the original purposefulness of nature.

C. Linnaeus (1707 – 1778):

1.Described a large number of species of plants and animals.

2. Introduced about 1000 botanical terms.

4. Proved that species is a universal unit and the main form of existence of living things.

5. Developed the basic principles of taxonomy of plants and animals.

6. He proposed the first classification of plants and animals, which was artificial in nature, since it was based not on the main properties of organisms and their historical connections, but on purely external characteristics.

Transformism – materialistic idea (late XVIII - XIX century)

The idea of ​​the natural origin of the world and its gradual development and renewal

J. B. Lamarck (1744 – 1829)

1. Creator of the first evolutionary concept in the work “Philosophy of Zoology” (1809)

2. Created a natural system of animals based on the principle of kinship between organisms.

Gradations/classes

/ 1. Polyps; 2. Ciliates

/ 3. Radiant; 4. Worms

/ 5. Insects; 6 Arachnids

V/7. Crustaceans; 8. Ringed;

9. Barnacles; 10. Shellfish

V/11. Pisces; 12. Reptiles

V/13.Birds; 14 Mammals;

15 people.

3. Identified the causes of evolution:

a) the internal desire of organisms for improvement;

b) the ability of organisms to respond expediently to changes in living conditions.

4. Combined the idea of ​​the variability of species with the idea of ​​progressive evolution.

5. Could not reveal the mechanisms of evolutionary progress.

Evolutionary doctrine of Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) – great English scientist

Intensive urban growth, which required increased agricultural productivity.

Advances in taxonomy of plants and animals.

Creation of cell theory.

Development of biogeography, embryology, comparative anatomy and paleontology.

Evolutionary doctrine of Lamarck.

Great selection work.

Numerous scientific expeditions.

The main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin.

All types of living beings inhabiting the Earth were never created by anyone.

Having arisen naturally, organic forms were slowly and gradually transformed and improved in accordance with environmental conditions.

The transformation of species in nature is based on such properties of organisms as heredity and variability, as well as natural selection that constantly occurs in nature. Natural selection occurs through the complex interaction of organisms with each other and with factors of inanimate nature; Darwin called this relationship the struggle for existence.

The result of evolution is the adaptability of organisms to their living conditions and the diversity of species in nature.

Driving forces of evolution

Properties of the external environment

Properties of living organisms

Diversity

a habitat

Life Resources

limited and distributed

unevenly

Pursuit

multiply

in geometric

sky progression

Change -

Inheritance-

Undetermined

naya (individual)

visual)

Determine

nal (group)

Correlative

Intraspecific

Combating factors of inanimate nature

Struggle for existence

Interspecific

Natural selection is the guiding factor

Manifold

Relative

fitness

organisms to the environment

a habitat

Diversity

Directions

evolution

Simultaneous

existence

primitive and highly organized

bath shapes

MAIN RESULTS AND EVIDENCE OF MACROEVOLUTION

Result of evolution

Variety of species

Gradual complication and increase in organizations of living beings

Fitness

organisms

to different living conditions

Proof of macroevolution

organic world

Paleontological :

Fossil transitional forms

Paleontological series

Relics

2 . Comparative – anatomical and morphological :

Homologous organs have a common origin and structure, but perform different functions;

Analogous organs - different in origin and structure, but perform the same functions;

Rudiments are structures that have lost their original meaning for the body;

Atavisms - a return to ancestral forms (deviation from the norm)

Embryological :

1. K. Baer's law of germinal similarity;

b. Biogenetic law of F. Muller and E. Haeckel

4. Biogeographical evidence – study of the flora and fauna of different continents (example - Australia)

MODERN VIEWS ABOUT EVOLUTION

Modern (synthetic) theory of evolution

Classical Darwinism + modern genetics arose in the beginning

40s XX V.

The driving forces of evolution, according to modern ideas, are:

The struggle for existence;

Natural selection based on hereditary variability.

Contribute to the evolutionary process: elementary evolutionary factors.

Basic provisions of the modern theory of evolution

The unit of evolution is the population;

Mutations provide elementary evolutionary material;

Elementary evolutionary factors contribute to evolution: population waves, gene flow and drift, isolation;

The main driving factor of evolution is natural selection, since it is the only one that selects from undirected hereditary changes those that better adapt organisms to specific conditions of existence.

Biological species

View is the basic structural unit of living nature. This is a collection of individuals that are similar in morphophysiological properties, have a common origin, occupy a specific area, interbreed freely and produce fertile offspring

Type criteria

Morphological;

Genetic;

Physiological;

Biochemical;

Geographical;

Ecological.

Separately, they are relative.

Form of existence of the species

under specific environmental conditions

Characterized by

Density;

Number

Sex composition;

Age composition

Genetic

polymorphism

Population – This is a collection of individuals of the same species that exist for a long time in a certain territory and are relatively isolated from other individuals of the same species.

This is the elementary unit of evolution.

Elementary evolutionary factors

Guiding the evolutionary process

Guides

evolutionary process

Natural selection

(against the background of the struggle for existence)

insulation

Waves of life

Gene flow and drift

Inheritance-

given variability

Geographical

Ecological

Biological

Act in a population, changing its gene pool

A possible result is the emergence of new populations, exploits, and species.

Speciation

(as a result of microevolution)

Adaptations are the result of evolution

Adaptations, or devices – These are features of the structure, functioning, and behavior of organisms to environmental conditions fixed during evolution.

Each adaptation and their entire complex are developed on the basis of hereditary variability in the process of struggle for existence and selection over a series of generations. The adaptability of organisms is the result of the action of the driving forces of evolution in given conditions of existence.

Morphological

Physiological

Organismal

Biochemical

Species

Ecological (behavioral)

Adaptations are relative. This means that when changing

Under conditions, useful signs may turn out to be useless or even harmful.

Adaptability of organisms

Torpedo-shaped

Gnarled,

leaf-shaped

Quirky

Helps avoid the formation of turbulence in water flows when moving.

Makes the body invisible among certain environmental objects

Hides among algae and coral polyps.

dolphins

Stick insects, moth caterpillars

Sea Horses,

anglerfish

Body color:

Patronizing

Dismembering

Cautionary

Hides against the background of the environment

The same against the background of stripes of light

Preservation of the number of species with poisonous, burning, stinging properties.

Hare - hare, white partridge, green grasshopper.

Zebras, tigers

Bees, wasps, blister beetles, cabbage butterfly caterpillars.

eggs laid by a cuckoo.

Needles, spines, crystals of potassium oxalate, accumulating in the spines or leaves of plants

Passive protection from being eaten by herbivores

Cacti, rose hips, hawthorn, nettle.

Hard coverings of the body

Passive protection against being eaten by carnivores

Beetles, crabs, bivalves, turtles, armadillos.

Needles

Passive protection

Echidnas, porcupines, hedgehogs.

Adaptive behavior:

Fading

Threatening pose

Stocking feed

Experiencing a period of lack or lack of food

Opossums, some beetles, amphibians, birds.

Bearded lizard, long-eared roundhead.

Nutcracker, jay, chipmunk, squirrel, pika.

Caring for offspring:

Carrying eggs in the mouth, in a fold of skin on the abdomen

Building a nest and raising offspring in it

Feeding offspring

Providing future offspring with food

Preservation of offspring

Males of tilapia, sea catfish, seahorse.

Some fish (sticklebacks, cocklebacks, macropods), birds, squirrels, small mice.

Birds, mammals.

Beetles - scarabs, riders, ovi-eaters.

Physiological adaptations:

Removal of excess water through the kidneys in the form of weakly concentrated urine

Drinking large amounts of water and excreting small amounts of concentrated urine

Maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of the body in living conditions in fresh water

Maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of the body in living conditions in the marine environment

Freshwater fish and amphibians.

Sea fish.

Speciation

Speciation – This is the process of the emergence of one or more new species based on a previously existing one.

Methods of speciation

Allopatric, Sympatric

or geographical

Provided the geographical species originates within

isolation genetic maternal population

isolation with occurrence

biological isolation

Microevolution and macroevolution

Microevolution scheme

Variability

(mutations, their combinations, modifications)

Population

(genetic-ecological

factors)

Genetic drift

Gene flow

Population waves

The struggle for existence

Natural selection

The emergence and improvement of devices

Speciation

Insulation

Forms of implementation of macroevolution

divergence of characteristics of organisms during the evolution of different lines that arose from a common ancestor.

It arises as a result of disruptive selection, as well as isolation of populations.

When characters diverge by selection, extreme forms are preferentially preserved. Organs that correspond to each other in structure and have a common origin, regardless of the function they perform, are called homologous.

Differences in the structure of the beaks of the crossbill - spruce and crossbill - pine .

Convergent – the result of the adaptation of organisms to the initial conditions of life, the convergence of characteristics in organisms of different systematic groups in the process of evolution.

The convergence of characteristics mainly affects only those organs that are directly related to similar environmental conditions.

Organs that perform similar functions, but have a fundamentally different structure and origin, are called similar

External similarity between the European mole and the marsupial mole, the marsupial aviator and the flying squirrel; similar organs: the wings of butterflies and bats, the gills of fish and crayfish, the burrowing limbs of moles and mole crickets, the flat body shape of stingrays and flounder, the spines of cactus and hawthorn.

Parallel

(a form of convergent development of organisms) parallel formation of similar adaptive traits in related previously divergent groups.

In the evolution of closely related groups of organisms, similar characters independently develop.

In cetaceans and pinnipeds, independently of each other, the forelimbs turned into flippers as an adaptation to the aquatic lifestyle. Different groups of lobe-finned fish developed amphibian characteristics. The characteristics of angiosperms developed independently and in parallel in different lines of evolution of their ancestors.

Finitistic evolution –

evolutionary adaptation of one systematic group.

The emergence of a new systematic group, different from the original one.

Phylogenetic series of horse ancestors:

phenocadis eohypuss

myohippus parahippus

Pliohippus equus.

Ways to achieve biological progress

ical process, or arogenesis (entering a new adaptive zone)

Accompanied by the acquisition of major changes in structure (aromorphoses), which significantly increase the level of organization of organisms.

Emerging aromas

Phoses are not

adaptive to any special environmental conditions, are of a general nature and make it possible to expand the use of environmental conditions and develop new habitats.

The appearance of jaws in vertebrates, the appearance of the skeleton as a site of muscle attachment, the replacement of smooth muscles in worms with bundles of striated muscles in arthropods.

Allogenesis (within one adaptive zone)

Accompanied by the acquisition of particular adaptations to environmental conditions, to certain habitats (idioadaptations) without changing the level of organization.

The changes that occur are adaptive in nature. The extreme degree of adaptation to specific, limited conditions of existence is called specialization (the transition to eating only one type of food, living in a homogeneous environment and...) With a rapid change in environmental conditions, organisms with narrow specialization die out. Small systematic groups (species, genera, families) usually arise through idioadaptations.

Patronage-

distinct coloration of animals, flat body shape of stingrays and combfish, chisel-shaped beak in woodpeckers, hooked beak in birds of prey, flippers in seals, whales; Koalas feed only on eucalyptus leaves, hummingbirds only on nectar from the flowers of tropical plants.

Catagenesis , or morphophysiological regression.

Accompanied by simplification of organization, disappearance of active life organs (general degeneration)

Main directions of evolution

Biological progress

(constant increase in the adaptability of organisms to environmental conditions)

Forms of natural selection

distribution of dark-colored birch moth butterflies in conditions of darkening of the birch bark due to constant smoke

Stabilizing

In unchanging, constant conditions of existence

Against individuals with emerging extreme deviations from the average norm of trait expression

Preservation and strengthening of the average norm of symptom manifestation

Preservation of the size and shape of the flower in insect-pollinated plants (flowers must correspond to the shape and size of the body of the pollinating insect and the structure of its proboscis)

Disruptive

In changing living conditions

in favor of organisms that have extreme deviations from the average expression of the trait

The formation of new average standards instead of the old one, which no longer corresponds to living conditions

With frequent strong winds, insects with well-developed or rudimentary wings are preserved on oceanic islands