The first reform of Alexander 2. The reforms of Alexander II - briefly. Historical significance of the abolition of serfdom

Alexander 2 went down in history as a reformer king. It was he who made a huge number of changes in the country, significantly changing Russia’s position on the world stage. The tsar's activities were given conflicting assessments: some considered him almost a saint, while others sincerely wished for the death of the monarch. A number of attempts were made on his life, each time Alexander was saved by a real miracle. But at sixty-two he died from a bomb thrown at his feet. The tragic death of the emperor shook Russia and gave rise to a number of prohibitions and a departure from the liberal course that Alexander led. The reform of Alexander 2, associated with the abolition of serfdom, the modernization of the judicial system, educational reforms - all this went down in history as the largest changes in Russian society.

Judicial reform (1864)

The judicial reform of Alexander 2 became a turning point in Russian record keeping. The courts were now divided into two parts: the local one dealt with the affairs of townspeople and peasants, and the district one dealt with more serious crimes. A jury trial was introduced, the members of which could belong to any class. His powers included the consideration of serious crimes. Discrimination was abolished: absolutely everyone was equal before the judiciary. Decisions were not made secretly; it was impossible to change the judge if for some reason he did not suit the participants in the process. The rules were the same for everyone and could not change during the meeting. In addition, the administrative division of the country also changed: the empire was now divided into districts.

The judicial reform of Alexander 2 deprived the emperor himself of real power in the courts; the only thing he could do was pardon a nobleman who was threatened with confiscation of property.

Zemstvo reform (1864)

The next after the abolition of serfdom was the zemstvo reform of Alexander II. A new body of local self-government was introduced - the zemstvo, whose members were elected by voting (representatives of all classes received access to it). The zemstvos themselves were divided into administrative (zemstvo assemblies) and executive (zemstvo councils) bodies. Only rich people could be elected to zemstvo assemblies, and representatives of each property class had their own elections. Later, participants in zemstvo assemblies appointed a chairman and a certain number of members of zemstvo councils.

This reform of Alexander 2 made it possible to create local authorities whose powers included resolving local issues. Such changes made it possible to significantly improve the lives of all segments of the population, giving more independence to provinces and districts, but there were also disadvantages. Metamorphoses implied the forced collection of money from the population for the implementation of all functions of zemstvos. So the zemstvo reform of Alexander 2 allowed the new local authorities to assign taxes and duties themselves.

Abolition of serfdom (1861)

The great reform of Alexander 2 was a response to increasing social tension in the country. The question of abolishing serfdom had been around for a very long time, but all previous monarchs constantly ignored it, oppressing the peasants more and more. There was a constant danger of rebellion; the kings understood that if the entire peasantry rose up, no one would be able to resist it. This was precisely the reason for Alexander’s strong-willed decision.

On February 19, 1861, the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom was published. But everything was not so simple: the reform of Alexander 2 turned out to be controversial. The table will tell you more about it.

The peasant reform of Alexander 2 can be briefly described as follows: the formal liberation of the peasants, but the preservation of their dependence on the landowners in reality.

Military reform (1857)

As part of universal conscription, military settlements were created in Russia - original camps, where peasants performed their duties on the ground for part of the day, and the rest of the time they were drilled by commanders. First of all, the reform of Alexander 2 liquidated these settlements.

Changes were also made in the field of military service: the exact number of conscripts was appointed annually, and all persons over 21 years of age drew lots, which determined who would go to serve. Of course, there were certain benefits: they did not take away the only breadwinner, the only son, or the one whose older brother served in the army. Military education shortened the length of military service, which varied depending on the unit.

The reform of Alexander 2 also affected administration: military districts were created, each of which was headed by a local governor-general. The army received new weapons, and railway troops were created. Now, if a prisoner did not go over to the enemy’s side, he was considered a victim and received monetary compensation for the time he spent in captivity.

The great reform of Alexander 2 made it possible to create a strong, albeit small army, which had a huge number of people in reserve. Technical modernization and command revisions had a positive impact on the combat readiness of the troops.

Educational reform (1864)

And education was not spared by the reform of Alexander 2. The table will tell you in more detail about all the innovations.

Censorship (1857)

The reform of Alexander 2 also affected periodicals. The state has always controlled what writers wrote, but with the introduction of the reform the situation changed dramatically: now works that exceeded a certain number of pages were not subject to censorship. Scientific works and government publications were not subject to censorship at all.

Urban reform (1870)

It became a logical continuation of the zemstvo. The urban reform of Alexander 2 can be briefly described as follows: the introduction of self-government in cities. Now all power was transferred to city councils and councils, which were responsible to their superiors. Only wealthy people could apply for a place in self-government bodies.

Conclusion

After Peter the Great, no tsar carried out as many transformations in Russia as Alexander 2. His contribution to the development of the country is truly invaluable. The reforms of Alexander 2 changed the state, which was stuck in the Middle Ages, marking the beginning of a new page in the history of Russia.

Personality of Emperor Alexander II. Emperor Alexander was born on April 18, 1818 in Moscow. He is the first child in the family of Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich, who at the end of 1825 became Emperor Nicholas I. At the same time, his seven-year-old son Alexander was proclaimed heir to the throne by a special manifesto.

Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a writer and one of the most educated people of that time, was appointed as the Tsarevich's mentor. He compiled a special curriculum for the high-born ward, the fundamental principle of which Zhukovsky defined as education for virtue. The tasks of training and education were closely intertwined.

Twice a year, exams were held for the heir, in which he invariably showed good results. After one of them, Emperor Nicholas I wrote to Zhukovsky: I am pleased to tell you that I did not expect to find such success in my son. Everything goes smoothly for him, everything he knows. - knows well, thanks to your way of teaching and the jealousy of teachers.

The most important part of the heir’s education was his travels around the country. In the spring of 1837, accompanied by V.A. Zhukovsky, Alexander traveled around Russia for more than 6 months. Railways did not yet exist, and the heir had to travel by steamboats and horses, covering vast distances.

The future king not only met with local officials, visited ancient temples, museums, historical and natural attractions, but also willingly visited the houses of ordinary people and listened carefully to their stories about the joys and sorrows of their life.

At the age of 19, Alexander Nikolaevich was fluent in five languages ​​(Russian, German, French, Polish and English), and also had extensive knowledge of history, mathematics, physics, natural history, geography, statistics, jurisprudence, political economy and the Law of God. In addition, he had good knowledge of military sciences.

He was distinguished by his broad outlook, refined manners and kindness of character. He made the most favorable impression on those who had the opportunity to meet him both in Russia and abroad.

As Tsarevich, Alexander Nikolaevich traveled abroad several times.

During the longest such trip, from May 1838 to June 1839, he visited Prussia, Sweden, Denmark, Bavaria, Austria, Holland, Italy, England and other principalities and kingdoms. Alexander Nikolaevich became acquainted with the political methods of governing various countries, visited parliaments, and was received everywhere with the greatest respect. Pope Gregory XVI even ordered the dome of St. Peter's Cathedral to be specially illuminated in his honor.

In April 1841, in St. Petersburg, the marriage of Alexander Nikolaevich and Princess Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt, who by that time had converted to Orthodoxy and took the name Maria Alexandrovna, took place.

Since the early 1840s. Nicholas I involved his son in government affairs. He takes part in the work of the State Council. Committee of Ministers, Finance Committee. During the Tsar's absences from the capital, the Tsarevich was entrusted with the responsibility of making decisions on current affairs. Since the late 1840s. Alexander Nikolaevich was appointed chairman of several committees that discussed the most important issues of state life, including the issue of improving the situation of serfs. In 1849, Alexander Nikolaevich received the position of commander of the guard and head of all military educational institutions in Russia.

At the time of his accession to the throne, Alexander II was a man of mature years, possessing extensive knowledge in various fields, and having a fairly deep understanding of the complex mechanics of public administration. He was on the throne from 1855 to 1881.

Abolition of serfdom. Manifesto February 19, 1861

Alexander II took the reins of power at a difficult historical moment. The Crimean War was going on, events in the theater of military operations were not unfolding in favor of Russia, the situation within the country was becoming tense, finances were upset. It was necessary to end the costly, unsuccessful war for Russia as quickly as possible.

In the first year of his reign, Alexander I focused on solving this particular problem. After the end of the war, the government faced internal problems. Alexander II very soon became convinced that it was impossible to govern the country in the old way, that a thorough restructuring of the entire cumbersome state building was required, that reforms were required almost everywhere.

Already on the first presented report of the Minister of Internal Affairs, which spoke about many of the country’s problems and the difficulties of resolving them, the tsar wrote: I read with great interest and thank you, especially for the frank presentation of all the shortcomings that, with God’s help and with general diligence, every year will be corrected.

A special place in this series of pressing problems was occupied by the problem of serfdom. Speaking to the Moscow nobility in 1856, the Tsar loudly declared the need to abolish serfdom: It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it begins to be abolished from below on its own.

This path turned out to be difficult and long. Only five years later, serfdom faded into the realm of history. During this time, a huge amount of preparatory work was carried out. Various types of commissions were established at the state and local levels, which considered the legal, financial and administrative aspects of the upcoming social restructuring.

The Tsar wanted the future great act of emancipation of the peasantry to reflect the will of the entire nation. However, a significant part of the nobility did not want change. Alexander II decided with a single act of will to turn the dark page of Russian history. For this he had enough strength and means. And yet he tried to do it in such a way that the first estate, which meant so much to the monarchy and the empire, would remain satisfied with the changes. He hoped that the nobility itself would realize the inevitability of future changes. That is why the solution to the problem of serfdom required such a long preparatory period. The expected transformations affected, to one degree or another, all aspects of the social life of the vast Russian Empire.

The project for the abolition of serfdom was drawn up by a special commission convened by the tsar at the beginning of 1859. It included senior government officials and famous public figures. By the end of 1860, a plan for the liberation of peasants from serfdom was developed. In February 1861, the emperor signed a Manifesto announcing the abolition of serfdom. This was a great and beneficial measure.

By 1861, serfdom was not preserved everywhere in the country. However, in the most populated and agriculturally developed provinces of European Russia it existed. This zone ran in the north along the St. Petersburg-Vologda line (approximately the 60th parallel), and in the south it was limited by the Don River (approximately the 45th parallel). In the east, the boundary of this area was marked by the Volga River, and in the west - the state border of the Russian Empire. More than half the population of Russia lived in this vast geographical square, and it was here that the fortress foundations were especially strong.

In other regions of the country there was either no serfdom at all (northern European Russia, Siberia, the Baltic states), or an insignificant part of the cultivators were in the fortress.

The difficulty of the problem to be solved was that the land in most cases belonged to the landowners. To pass a law stating that farmers from such and such a date are considered legally free meant depriving them of their means of subsistence. Therefore, it was necessary not only to give freedom to 25% of the peasants (it was precisely this part that by that time experienced the hardships of personal lack of freedom), but also to provide them with economic conditions for their future life.

The authorities were also concerned about the future position of the noble class, whose representatives were the main owners of land. (Among the landowners there were also representatives of other classes - merchants, petty bourgeoisie, peasantry, but at that time they owned about 10% of the total land fund, which was in the hands of private individuals.) The well-being of the first, noble, class, which gave the country the bulk of the officer corps and officials , was directly related to the situation of the peasantry.

When starting to develop transformative measures, the government sought, on the one hand, to provide freedom to the black-sown (ordinary) peasants, to provide them with the necessary minimum for independent existence, and on the other, to protect the interests of the nobility.

On February 19, 1861, on the sixth anniversary of his accession to the throne, together with the Manifesto on the Abolition of Serfdom, the monarch approved several legislative acts that constituted the Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom. From that day on, serfdom was abolished, and the peasants were given the title of free rural inhabitants. Their legal affiliation with the landowner was eliminated once and for all. The manifesto and new laws were published and read in churches throughout Russia.

Peasants received personal freedom and the right to freely dispose of their property. Police power, which until then belonged to the landowners, was transferred to the bodies of rural communities. Judicial powers were partially transferred to volost courts elected by peasants, and partially to magistrates.

The landowners retained the right to all the land that belonged to them, but were obliged to provide the peasants with permanent residence (land near the peasant farmstead), as well as field allotment (agricultural land outside the settlements).

For the use of the land they received, peasants had to either work off its value on the landowner's lands, or pay quitrent (in money or products). The size of the estate and field allotment was determined by special statutory charters, for the preparation of which a period of two years was allotted. The peasants were given the right to buy out the estate and, by agreement with the landowner, the field allotment.

Peasants who redeemed their plots were called peasant-owners, and those who did not do so were called temporarily obligated.

The peasants who were leaving the tutelage of the landowners were now obliged to unite into rural societies and decide all matters of their local government at village gatherings. Village elders, elected for three years, were required to carry out the decisions of such meetings.

Rural societies located in the same area constituted a peasant volost, the affairs of which were in charge of meetings of village elders and special elected representatives of rural societies.

At the volost assembly, the volost foreman was elected. He performed not only administrative (managerial) but also police functions.

These were the general features of peasant self-government that was established after the fall of serfdom.

The government believed that over time all the land provided, according to the reform, to the peasantry, would become the full property of the peasants.

Most peasants did not have the means to pay the landowner the entire amount due, so the state contributed money for them. This money was considered debt. The peasants had to pay off their land debts with small annual payments, called redemption payments. It was assumed that the peasants' final payment for the land would be completed within 49 years.

Redemption payments were paid annually by the entire rural community, and the peasant did not have the right to refuse the allotment and change his place of residence. For this it was necessary to obtain the consent of the village assembly. Such consent was given with great difficulty, since payments were a common duty. This was called mutual responsibility.

Of course, the transformations carried out did not satisfy many. The landowners lost free labor, and although they retained financial leverage, in the future they lost their influence on the peasants. The peasants were not happy that they received the land not for nothing, but for a ransom that they had to pay for many years.

In some areas, riots even arose, because a rumor spread that the real royal charter, where the land was supposedly transferred to the peasantry without any ransom, was hidden by the bars. The events in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province and in the village of Kandeevka, Penza province, where the peasants drove out all government officials and established their own, correct, power, became famous. In these villages it came to bloody clashes between peasants and troops.

In general, an event of enormous historical significance occurred without serious social upheavals. Despite all the imperfections of the reform of 1861, the state managed to solve a difficult historical task - to eliminate the humiliating serfdom and open the way to intensive social transformation of the country.

Zemstvo, city, judicial and military reforms. Changing the education system

The abolition of serfdom radically changed the entire character of social life in Russia, and the authorities were faced with the task of re-structuring it. With the Manifesto of February 19, 1861, a period of transformation began, which later became known as the era of great reforms.

In January 1864, the emperor approved the Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions. According to this Regulation, persons of all classes who owned land or other real estate within the districts, as well as rural peasant societies, were given the right to participate in economic management affairs through elected councilors who made up district and provincial zemstvo assemblies, convened several times a year. For everyday activities, district and provincial zemstvo councils were elected.

Zemstvos took care of all local needs: building and maintaining roads, food supply for the population, education, and medical care. To solve these problems, funds were needed, and local governments received the right to establish zemstvo fees (taxes).

Zemstvo self-government was introduced gradually. It was first established at the beginning of 1865 in the Samara province. By the end of that year, similar institutions had been introduced in 17 more provinces. By 1881, zemstvos already existed in 33 provinces of European Russia.

A few years after the opening of zemstvos, cities also received the right to broad self-government. In 1870, Alexander II approved the City Regulations, by virtue of which city dumas, formed from elected councilors from urban classes, and city councils elected by these dumas began to manage in cities the same affairs that zemstvos dealt with in rural areas.

Participation in the selection of public city councils was granted to representatives of all classes who owned real estate (house, land) in a given city or were engaged in any trading business. City governments were given the right to introduce city fees (taxes).

Another important reform of Tsar Alexander II was the transformation of legal proceedings. The old court was secret, cases were decided in a clerical manner, the accused were often not even called to court, and the investigation was often carried out ineptly and biasedly. Cases dragged on for a long time, and judicial red tape caused general dissatisfaction.

In November 1864, the Tsar approved a new Judicial Charter, designed to create a quick, fair, equal and open court. From now on, the judicial system corresponded to the most modern world standards. A jury trial and the institution of sworn attorneys (lawyers) were introduced.

The reign of Alexander II was marked by military reform. On January 1, 1874, a decree introducing universal military service was signed.

For more than 100 years, the upper classes in Russia were exempt from compulsory military service. Its entire burden lay mainly on the peasantry, among whom annual recruitment drives were carried out. Those who were shaved were separated from their families for many years and returned home in old age, since their service life was 25 years.

The decree introducing universal military service stated: The cause of defending the Fatherland is the common cause of the people and the sacred duty of every Russian subject.

Since 1874, all young people over 21 years of age began to be called up to serve military service. Benefits were also provided in this regard. They were exempt from service due to their marital status (the only son in the family), their service life was shortened depending on the level of education of the future warrior, and some categories of the population, such as teachers, were not drafted into the army at all. The service life was now 6 years in the army, 7 years in the navy.

During the reign of Alexander II, great changes took place. In the field of education. New higher educational institutions were opened. In 1863, the University Charter was approved, providing higher education institutions with broad autonomy. All issues of internal management were now transferred from the official trustee to the council, elected from among the teachers. Not only changes in current teaching, but the entire internal organization of university life were concentrated in the hands of the university itself, headed by an elected rector.

In 1864, a new School Charter was approved, according to which gymnasiums and real schools were introduced in the country.

The gymnasiums taught mainly humanities and foreign languages, including Latin and Greek. They prepared students to enter universities. In real schools, preference was given to natural science disciplines. The schools oriented their graduates towards entering higher technical institutions. Both gymnasiums and real schools provided children with a completed secondary education.

Under Alexander II, primary (two- and four-year) school education for children from low-income families, mainly peasants, was widely developed.

In just 26 years of his reign, the number of various kinds of schools, gymnasiums and colleges increased many times over. In 1880, the number of educational institutions exceeded 23 thousand (about 1.5 million students), while in 1861 the number of educational institutions of various profiles did not reach 5 thousand.

In politics, as in all public life, not to move forward means to be thrown back.

Lenin Vladimir Ilyich

Alexander 2 went down in history as a reformer. During his reign, significant changes took place in Russia, the main one of which concerns the solution of the peasant question. In 1861, Alexander II abolished serfdom. Such a radical step was long overdue, but its implementation was associated with a large number of difficulties. The abolition of serfdom required the emperor to carry out other reforms that were supposed to return Russia to a leading position on the world stage. The country has accumulated a huge number of problems that have not been resolved since the era of Alexander 1 and Nicholas 1. The new emperor had to place great emphasis on solving these problems, carrying out largely liberal reforms, since the previous path of conservatism did not lead to positive consequences.

The main reasons for reforming Russia

Alexander 2 came to power in 1855, and he immediately faced an acute problem in carrying out reforms in almost all spheres of state life. The main reasons for the reforms of the era of Alexander 2 are as follows:

1. Defeat in the Crimean War.
2. Growing discontent of the people.
3. Losing economic competition to Western countries.
4. Progressive entourage of the emperor.

Most of the transformations were carried out in the period 1860 - 1870. They went down in history under the name “liberal reforms of Alexander 2.” Today the word “liberal” often scares people, but in fact, it was during this era that the basic principles of the functioning of the state were laid down, which lasted until the end of the Russian Empire. It is also important to understand here that even though the previous era was called “the apogee of autocracy,” this was flattery. Nicholas 1 reveled in the victory in the Patriotic War, and the apparent dominance over European countries. He was afraid to make significant changes in Russia. Therefore, the country actually reached a dead end, and his son Alexander 2 was forced to solve the gigantic problems of the Empire.

What reforms were carried out

We have already said that the main reform of Alexander 2 was the abolition of serfdom. It was this transformation that confronted the country with the need to modernize all other areas. In short, the main changes were as follows.

Financial reform 1860 - 1864. A state bank, zemstvo and commercial banks are created. The activities of banks were mainly aimed at supporting industry. In the last year of reforms, control bodies are created, independent of local authorities, which audit the financial activities of authorities.

Zemstvo reform of 1864. With its help, the problem of attracting the broad masses of the population to solve everyday issues was solved. Elected bodies of zemstvo and local self-government were created.

Judicial reform of 1864. After the reform, the court became more “legal.” Under Alexander 2, jury trials were introduced for the first time, transparency, the ability to bring any person to trial regardless of his position, the independence of the court from local administrations, corporal punishment was abolished, and much more.

Educational reform of 1864. This reform completely changed the system that Nicholas 1 tried to build, who sought to limit the population from knowledge. Alexander 2 promoted the principle of public education, which would be accessible to all classes. For this purpose, new primary schools and gymnasiums were opened. In particular, it was during the Alexander era that women's gymnasiums began to open and women were admitted to the civil service.

Censorship reform of 1865. These changes absolutely supported the previous course. Control continued to be exercised over everything that was published, since revolutionary activities in Russia were extremely active.

Urban reform of 1870. It was mainly used for the improvement of cities, the development of markets, healthcare, education, the establishment of sanitary standards, and so on. Reforms were introduced in 509 cities out of 1,130 in Russia. The reform was not applied to cities located in Poland, Finland and Central Asia.

Military reform of 1874. It was mainly spent on the modernization of weapons, the development of the fleet and the training of personnel. As a result, the Russian army again became one of the leading in the world.

Consequences of reforms

The reforms of Alexander 2 had the following consequences for Russia:

• Prospects have been created for building a capitalist model of the economy. The level of state regulation of the economy was reduced in the country, and a free labor market was created. However, the industry was not 100% ready to accept the capitalist model. This required more time.
• The foundations for the formation of civil society have been laid. The population received more civil rights and freedoms. This applies to all areas of activity, from education to real freedoms of movement and work.
• Strengthening the opposition movement. The bulk of the reforms of Alexander 2 were liberal, so the liberal movements, which were attributed to Nicholas the First, began to gain strength again. It was during this era that the key aspects that led to the events of 1917 were laid down.

Defeat in the Crimean War as a justification for reforms

Russia lost the Crimean War for several reasons:

• Lack of communications. Russia is a huge country and it is very difficult to move an army across it. To solve this problem, Nicholas 1 began the construction of a railway, but this project was not implemented due to banal corruption. The money intended for the construction of a railway connecting Moscow and the Black Sea region was simply torn apart.
• Disagreement in the army. The soldiers and officers did not understand each other. There was a whole gulf between them, both class and educational. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Nicholas 1 demanded severe punishment of soldiers for any offense. This is where the nickname of the Emperor among the soldiers comes from - “Nikolai Palkin”.
• Military-technical lag behind Western countries.

Today, many historians say that the scale of the defeat in the Crimean War was simply gigantic, and this is the main factor indicating that Russia needed reforms. This idea is supported and supported also in Western countries. After the capture of Sevastopol, all European publications wrote that autocracy in Russia had outlived its usefulness, and the country needed changes. But the main problem was different. In 1812 Russia won a great victory. This victory created among the emperors the absolute illusion that the Russian army was invincible. And now the Crimean War dispelled this illusion, Western armies demonstrate their superiority in technical terms. All this led to the fact that officials, who pay great attention to opinions from abroad, accepted a national inferiority complex and began to try to convey it to the entire population.

But the truth is that the scale of defeat in the war is extremely overestimated. Of course, the war was lost, but this does not mean that Alexander 2 ruled a weak Empire. It must be remembered that in the Crimean War Russia was opposed by the best and most developed countries of Europe at that time. And despite this, England and its other allies still remember this war and the valor of Russian soldiers with horror.

The table contains the reforms of Alexander 2 (1855-1881) and counter-reforms of Alexander 3 (1881-1894)

Loris-Melikov's reforms

A number of assassination attempts on the royal family, especially the explosion of Khalturin in the Winter Palace (1880), testified to the significant growth of the revolutionary movement, with which the liberal movement began to unite. Having recognized the incompleteness of some of his previous transformations, Alexander II decided to entrust their further development to General Loris-Melikov. He put forward plans for a number of reforms regarding the situation of peasants, the tax system, freedom of the press, and abolished the III department (political police). Loris-Melikov even intended to involve elected people's representatives in a preliminary discussion of the most important bills, which would introduce elements of constitutionalism into Russian statehood. You can read about the program of this minister in the articles on our website: Loris-Melikov and his projects, Loris-Melikov’s reforms - briefly, Loris-Melikov’s “Constitution” - briefly. The government abandoned these projects after the assassination of Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya on March 1, 1881.